Postmodern architecture is a force or movement that emerged in the 1960s in response to austerity, formality, and lack of variation in modern architecture, particularly in the international style advocated by Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. This movement was introduced by the architect and city planner Denise Scott Brown and architectural theorist Robert Venturi in their book '' Learning from Las Vegas ''. The style developed from the 1980s to the 1990s, especially in the work of Scott Brown & amp; Venturi, Philip Johnson, Charles Moore and Michael Graves. In the late 1990s it was divided into many new trends, including high-tech architecture, neo-classicism and deconstructivism.
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Origins
Postmodern architecture emerged in the 1960s as a reaction to the perceived lack of modern architecture, particularly its rigid doctrine, its uniformity, its lack of ornamentation, and its habit of ignoring the history and culture of the cities in which it emerged. In 1966, Venturi formalized the movement in his book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture . Venturi summarizes the kind of architecture he wants to see in place of modernism:
I speak of a complex and contradictory architecture based on the richness and ambiguity of modern experience, including the inherent experience in art.... I welcome problems and exploit uncertainty.... I like more hybrid elements than "pure", sacrificing rather than "clean",... adjusting rather than excluding.... I am for the chaotic vitality of a clear unity.... I prefer "both-and" to "either-or", black and white, and sometimes gray, to black or white.... An architecture of complexity and contradiction must embody a difficult union of inclusion rather than an easy, exclusive unity.
In the place of functional doctrine of modernism, Venturi proposes to give a major emphasis on the facade, incorporating historical elements, the use of unusual materials and historical allegories, and the use of fragmentation and modulation to make the building interesting. Venturi's wife, the architect and competent city planner Denise Scott Brown, and Venturi write Learn from Las Vegas (1972), in collaboration with Steven Izenour, where they developed their common argument against modernism. They urge architects to consider and celebrate the existing architecture somewhere, rather than trying to impose a visionary utopia of their own fantasies. This is in line with Scott Brown's belief that buildings should be built for people, and the architecture should listen to them. Scott Brown and Venturi argue that decorative and decorative elements "accommodate existing needs for variety and communication". This book plays a role in opening the eyes of the reader to the new way of thinking about the building, because it draws from the entire history of architecture - both high and vernacular, both historic and modern - and Responding to Mies van der Rohe's famous proverb "Less is more", Venturi said, Less boring. " Venturi cites examples from his wife and his own building, Guild House, in Philadelphia, for example a new style that welcomes historical variety and reference, without going back to the old-fashioned revival.
In Italy at the same time, a similar rebellion against rigorous modernism is being launched by architect Aldo Rossi, who criticizes the rebuilding of Italian cities and buildings that were destroyed during the war in a modernist style, which has nothing to do with the history of architecture. , original road plans, or cultural cities. Rossi insisted that cities be rebuilt in ways that preserve their local history and traditions. Similar ideas and projects were put forward at the Venice Biennale in 1980. The call for a post-modern style merged with Christian de Portzamparc in France and Ricardo Bofill in Spain, and in Japan by Arata Isozaki.
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Famous postmodern buildings and architects
Robert Venturi
Robert Venturi (born 1925) is a postmodernist theorist and architect whose building illustrates his ideas. After studying at the American Academy in Rome, he worked in the modernist offices of Eero Saarinen and Louis Kahn until 1958, and later became professor of architecture at Yale University. One of his first buildings was the Guild House in Philadelphia, built between 1960 and 1963, and a home for his mother at Chestnut Hill, in Philadelphia. Both houses became symbols of the postmodern movement. He went on to design, in the 1960s and 1970s, a series of buildings that took into account both historical precedents, as well as the ideas and forms that existed in the real lives of the cities around them.
Michael Graves
Michael Graves (1934-2015) designed the two most prominent buildings in postmodern style, the Portland Building and the Denver Public Library. He then followed up his historic buildings by designing large and inexpensive retail stores for chains like Target and J.C. Penney in the United States, which has a major influence on the design of retail stores in downtown and shopping centers. In his early career, he, along with Peter Eisenman, Charles Gwathmey, John Hejduk and Richard Meier, was regarded as one of the New York Five, a group of pure modern architectural supporters, but in 1982 he switched to postmodernism with Portland. Building, one of the first major structures in style. This building has been added to the National Register of Historic Places.
Charles Moore
The most famous work of the architect Charles Moore is the Piazza d'Italia in New Orleans (1978), a public square composed of a collection of pieces of the famous Italian Renaissance architecture. Referring to the Spanish Revival architecture of the city hall, Moore designed the Beverly Hills Civic Center in a mixture of Spanish Revival, Art Deco and Post-Modern styles. These include courtyards, colonnades, promenades, and buildings, with open and semi-enclosed spaces, stairs and balconies.
The Haas School of Business at the University of California, Berkeley merges with the neo-Renaissance architecture of the Berkeley campus and with its beautiful early 20th century wooden settlement architecture in adjacent Berkeley Hills.
Philip Johnson
Philip Johnson (1906-2005) started his career as a pure modernist. In 1935 he co-wrote the famous catalog of the International Museum of Modern Art exhibition on International Style, and studied with Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer at Harvard. The Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut (1949), inspired by a similar house by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became an icon of the modernist movement. He worked with Mies on another iconic modernist project, the Seagrams Building in New York City. However, in the 1950s he began to incorporate certain forms of play and attitudes into his buildings, such as the Port Chester Synagogue (1954-56), with vaulted ceiling plaster and narrow-colored windows, and the Nebraska University Art Gallery (1963 ). However, the main buildings in 1970, such as the IDS Center in Minneapolis (1973) and Pennzoil Place in Houston (1970-76) were large, simple, and fully modernist.
With the AT & T Building (now 550 Madison Avenue) (1978-82), Johnson changed dramatically toward postmodernism. The most prominent feature of the building is the pure decorative part that is modeled after a piece of Chippendale furniture, and has other more subtle references to historical architecture. His intention was to make the building stand out as a corporate symbol amongst the surrounding modern skyscrapers in Manhattan, and he succeeded; it became the most famous of all postmodern buildings. Soon afterwards he completed another postmodern project, PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1979-1984), a six-glass building complex for Pittsburg Glass Company. These buildings have neo-gothic features, including 231 glass towers, the largest being 82 feet (25 m) tall.
In 1995, he built a postmodern gate pavilion for his residence, Glass House. Gatehouse, called "Da Monstra", is 23 feet tall, made of shotgun, or concrete shot from a hose, gray and red. It is part of a sculpture architecture with no right angles and very few straight lines, the predecessor of 21st century sculptural contemporary architecture.
Frank Gehry
Frank Gehry (born 1929) is a major figure in postmodernist architecture, and is one of the most prominent figures in contemporary architecture. After studying at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles and then Harvard Graduate School of Design, he opened his own office in Los Angeles in 1962. Beginning in the 1970s, he began using prefabricated industrial materials to build unusual shapes at home - a private home in Los Angeles, including, in 1978, his own home in Santa Monica. He broke their traditional designs giving them an unfinished and unstable appearance. His Schnabel house in Los Angeles (1986-1989) was broken into individual structures, with different structures for each room. His Norton Residence in Venice, California (1983) was built for a writer and former coast guard, having a model workspace after a coast guard tower overlooking Santa Monica beach. In the early buildings, different parts of the building often have different bright colors. In the 1980s he began receiving major commissions, including Loyola Law School (1978-1984), and California Aerospace Museum (1982-84), then international commissions in the Netherlands and Czech Republic. His "Dancing House" in Prague (1996), was built with a choppy facade of concrete plaques; parts of the walls are made up of glass, which reveals the concrete pillars underneath. His most prominent project was the Guggenheim Bilbao museum (1991-97), wrapped in corrugated titanium leather, a material that until then was used primarily in building aircraft, which changed color depending on light. Gehry is often described as a supporter of dekonstruktivisme, but he refuses to accept it or any other label for his work.
Postmodernism in Europe
While postmodernism is best known as the American style, important examples also appear in Europe. In 1991 Robert Venturi completed the Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery in London, which is modern but harmonized with neoclassical architecture in and around Trafalgar Square. German-born architect Helmut Jahn built the Messeturm skyscraper in Frankfurt, Germany, a skyscraper decorated with spiers of medieval towers.
One of the earliest postmodernist architects in Europe was James Stirling (1926-1992). He was the first critic of modernist architecture, blaming modernism for the destruction of British cities in the years after World War II. He designed a colorful public housing project in postmodern style, as well as Neue Staatsgalerie in Stuttgart, Germany (1977-1983) and Kammertheater in Stuttgart (1977-1982), as well as Arthur M. Sackler Museum at Harvard University in the United States.
One of the most visible examples of postmodern styles in Europe is the SIS Building in London by Terry Farrell (1994). The building, next to the River Thames, is the headquarters of the British Secret Intelligence Service. Deyan Sudjic's critic of The Guardian in 1992 described it as a "tombstone for architecture" of the eighties... This is a design that combines high seriousness in its classical composition with the possibility of an unconscious sense of humor. The building could be interpreted as equally plausible as a Mayan temple or a piece of art deco machine.
The Italian architect Aldo Rossi (1931-1997) is known for his postmodern work in Europe, the Bonnefanten Museum in Maastricht, The Netherlands, completed in 1995. Rossi was the first Italian to win the prestigious award in architecture, the Pritzker Prize, in 1990. He is famous because it combines rigid and pure forms with evocative and symbolic elements taken from classical architecture.
The Spanish architect Ricardo Bofill is also known for his early postmodern works, including a residential complex in the form of a castle with a red wall at Culpe on the Spanish coast (1973).
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Postmodernisme di Jepang
The Japanese architect Tadao Ando (born 1941) and Isozaki Arata (born 1931) introduced the ideas of the postmodern movement to Japan. Prior to opening his studio in Osaka in 1969, Ando traveled extensively in North America, Africa and Europe, absorbed European and American styles, and lacked formal architectural education, although he taught later at Yale University (1987), Columbia University (1988) and Harvard University (1990). Most of the buildings are built of raw concrete in cubic shape, but have wide openings that carry light and landscapes outside. Beginning in the 1990s, he began using wood as a building material, and introduced traditional Japanese architectural elements, especially in the design of the Wood Culture Museum (1995). His Bennesse house in Naoshima, Kagama, has classical Japanese architectural elements and plans that subtly integrate the house into the natural landscape. He won the Pritzker Prize, the most prestigious award in architecture, in 1995.
Isozaki Arata worked for two years at Kenzo Tange's studio before opening his own company in Tokyo in 1963. The Museum of Contemporary Art in Nagi artfully combines wood, stone and metal, and joins together three geometric shapes, a cylinder, a half-cylinder and an extended block, to present three different artists in different settings. Its Art Tower in Mito, Japan (1986-1990) features a postmodernist aluminum tower rotated on its own axis. In addition to museums and cultural centers in Japan, he designed the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA), (1981-86), and the COSI Columbus sociology museum and research center in Columbus, Ohio.
Concert hall - Sydney Opera House and Berlin Philharmonic
The Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia, by Danish architects JÃÆ'¸rn Utzon (1918-2008) is one of the best known of all postwar architectural works, and extends the transition from modernism to postmodernism. Construction began in 1957 but was not completed until 1973 due to difficult engineering issues and increasing costs. Giant concrete shells loomed above the platform that formed the roof of the hall itself. The architect resigned before the structure was completed, and the interior was designed mostly after he left the project. The influence of the Sydney Opera House, can be seen in the concert hall then with a soaring roof made of corrugated steel.
One of the most influential buildings of the Postmodern period is the Berlin Philharmonic, designed by Hans Scharoun (1893-1972) and completed in 1963. The exterior, with its sloping roof and launch facade, is a different break from the earlier, more modest modernist concert halls. Revolution is actually inside, where Scharoun puts the orchestra in the middle, with the audience sitting on the terrace around him. He describes it like this: "The shape given to the hall is inspired by the scenery: In the middle is the valley, on the underside of the orchestra found, around it on all sides rising up the terrace, like vineyards.In accordance with the earthly landscape, the ceiling in above looks like the sky. "Following his description, the concert hall of the future, such as the Walt Disney Concert Hall by Frank Gehry in Los Angeles, and the Philharmonie de Paris of Jean Nouvel (2015) use the term" vineyard style "and place the orchestra in the center, instead on the stage at the end of the hall.
Characteristics
Complexity and contradiction
Postmodern architecture first emerged as a reaction to the doctrine of modern architecture, as expressed by modernist architects including Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In place of the modernist doctrine of simplicity as expressed by Mies in his book "more or less;" and functions, "form follows function" and Le Corbusier's doctrine that "a house is a machine to live in," postmodernism, in the words of Robert Venturi, offers the complexity and contradictions . Postmodern buildings have curved shapes, decorative elements, asymmetry, bright colors, and features that are often borrowed from previous periods. Colors and textures that are not related to the structure or function of the building. While rejecting the "puritanism" of modernism, it calls for the return of ornaments, and the accumulation of quotes and collages borrowed from the style of the past. He borrowed freely from classical architecture, rococo, neoclassical architecture, Viennese secession, the British art and craft movement, the German Jugendstil.
Postmodern buildings are often combined with amazing new forms and features with seemingly contradictory elements of classism. James Stirling, architect of Neue Staatsgalerie in Stuttgart, Germany (1984), describes the style as "representation and abstraction, monumental and informal, traditional and high tech."
Fragmentation
Postmodern architecture often breaks large buildings into different structures and forms, sometimes representing different functions of parts of the building. With the use of different materials and styles, one building may appear like a small town or village. An example is the Staditsches Museum by Hans Hollein in Munich (1972-74).
Asymmetrical and oblique shape
The asymmetrical form is one of the trademarks of postmodernism. In 1968 the French architect, Claude Parent, and philosopher Paul Virilio designed a church, Saint-Bernadette-du-Banlay in Nevers, France, in the form of large concrete blocks that leaned to one side. Describing shapes, they write: "Diagonal lines on white pages can be hills, or mountains, or slopes, ascent, or descendants." The parent building was partially inspired by the German concrete block houses he found on the French coast that had slid across the cliffs, but were still intact, with sloping walls and sloping floors. Postmodernist compositions are rarely symmetrical, balanced and orderly. Slanted, slender, and seemingly falling buildings are common.
Color
Color is an important element in many postmodern buildings, to provide various facades and personalities sometimes used colored glass, or ceramic tiles, or stones. The buildings of Mexican architect Luis Barragan offer bright sunlight colors that give life to its shapes.
Humor and "camp"
Humor is a special feature of many postmodern buildings, especially in the United States. An example is the Binoculars Building in the Venetian neighborhood of Los Angeles, designed by Frank Gehry in collaboration with the sculptor Claes Oldenberg (1991-2001). The gate of this building is a pair of very large binoculars; car goes into the garage pass under the binoculars. "Camp" humor is very popular during the postmodern period; it is an ironic humor based on the premise that something can seem so bad (like a building that looks about to collapse) that it's good. American critic Susan Sontag in 1964 defines camp as a style that accents textures, surfaces, and styles for destructive content, which worships excessive, and things are not as they seem. Postmodern architecture sometimes uses the same meaning of theatricality, absurdity and exaggeration of form.
The goal of Postmodernism, which encompasses the solution of the problem of Modernism, communicates meaning with ambiguity, and sensitivity to the building context, surprisingly united for the period of the building designed by architects who have largely never collaborated with each other. However, these goals provide space for diverse applications as can be illustrated by the various buildings created during the movement.
Postmodern architectural theory
The characteristic of postmodernism allows its purpose to be expressed in various ways. These characteristics include the use of sculptural forms, ornaments, anthropomorphisms and materials that perform trompe l'oeil . These physical characteristics are combined with conceptual characteristics of meaning. Characteristics of this meaning include pluralism, double coding, flying support and high ceilings, irony and paradox, and contextualism.
The sculptural forms, not necessarily organic, were created with much passion. This can be seen in the Hans Hollein Abteiberg Museum (1972-1982). This building consists of several building units, all very different. Every form of building is not as rigid from Modernism. These forms are sculptures and somewhat playful. These forms are not reduced to an absolute minimum; they are built and formed for their own sake. The building units all fit organically, which enhances the shape effect.
After years of neglect, ornaments return. Venice Beach House Frank Gehry, built in 1986, is filled with little ornamental detail that is considered excessive and unnecessary in Modernism. The Venice Beach House has a round wood assembly mostly for decoration. The log above has a small purpose of holding the window cover. However, the fact that they can be replaced with nails that are practically invisible, makes their exaggerated presence largely decorative. Ornaments at Portland Graves' Portland Municipal Services Building ("Portland Building") (1980) are even more prominent. The two most prominent triangular shapes are ornamental. They exist for their own aesthetic or purpose.
Postmodernism, with its sensitivity to the context of the building, does not rule out the human needs of the building. Brion Carlo Scarpa's grave (1970-72) exemplifies this. The human need for a cemetery is that it has a serious nature, but it should not cause visitors to become depressed. Scarpa's funeral reaches a serious mood with a dull gray color of neatly defined walls and shapes, but bright green grass prevents this from becoming too much.
Postmodern buildings sometimes use trompe l'oeil , creating an illusion of space or depth in which nothing really exists, as painters have done since the Romans. The Portland Building (1980) has a pillar represented on the side of the building that to some extent looks real, but it is not.
The Hood Museum of Art (1981-1983) has a typical symmetrical façade which was then prevalent throughout the Postmodern Building.
Robert Venturi's Vanna Venturi House (1962-64) illustrates the purpose of postmodernism to communicate the meaning and characteristics of symbolism. The faÃÆ'§ade is, according to Venturi, the symbolic image of the house, looking back to the 18th century. This is partially achieved through the use of symmetry and arch above the entrance.
Perhaps the best example of irony in the Postmodern building is Charles Moore's Piazza d'Italia (1978). Moore quotes (architecturally) elements of Italian renaissance and Roman Antiquity. However, it does so with a change. The irony comes when it is noted that the pillars are covered with steel. This is also paradoxical in the way he quotes ancient Italian times far from the original in New Orleans.
Double code means the building conveys many meanings simultaneously. The Sony Building in New York did this very well. This building is a tall skyscraper that brings its connotation with a very modern technology. However, the top is against this. The upper part conveys the classic ancient elements. This double encoding is a common feature of Postmodernism.
Characteristics Postmodernism is somewhat united given their diverse appearance. The most prominent among their features are their extraordinary forms and the humor of the meaning conveyed by the building.
Postmodern architecture as an international style - the first examples commonly cited from the 1950s - but did not become a movement until the late 1970s and continue to influence the architecture of today. Postmodernity in architecture is said to be heralded by the return of "intelligence, ornament and reference" to architecture in response to the formalism of the International Style of Modernism. Like many cultural movements, some of the most prominent and visible ideas of Postmodernism can be seen in architecture. The formal and functional forms and spaces of the modernist style are replaced by a variety of aesthetics: colliding styles, adopted forms for their own interests, and new ways of looking at intense styles and familiar spaces. Perhaps most obviously, architects rediscovered the ornaments and architectural forms of the past that have been abstracted by Modernist architects.
The postmodern architecture is also described as neo-eclectic, where references and ornaments have returned to the facade, replacing the inhumane modern style. This eclecticism is often combined with the use of non-orthogonal corners and unusual surfaces, most notably in the Stuttgart Country Gallery by James Stirling and Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore. The Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh has also been referred to as the postmodern mode.
Modernist architects may regard the postmodern building as vulgar, associated with populist ethics, and share the design elements of shopping malls, cluttered with "gew-gaws". Postmodern architects can regard many modern buildings as soulless and bland, too simple and abstract. This contrast is exemplified in the juxtaposition of "whites" to "gray", in which "whites" attempt to continue (or revive) the tradition of purismish modernism and clarity, while "gray" embraces more sides. cultural vision, seen in the statement of Robert Venturi who rejects the "black or white" world view of modernism in favor of "black and white and sometimes gray." The difference of opinion leads to a difference in purpose: modernism is rooted in the minimal and correct use of material and the absence of ornaments, while postmodernism is a rejection of the strict rules set by early modernists and seeks meaning and expression in its use. building techniques, forms, and style references.
One form of building that symbolizes the exploration of Postmodernism is a traditional saddle roof, in place of flat roofs of iconic modernism. Getting rid of water from the center of the building, the shape of the roof always serves a functional purpose in the climate with rain and snow, and is a logical way to reach larger ranges with shorter structural members, but that is relatively rare in Modernist buildings. (This is, after all, a "machine for life," according to LeCorbusier, and the machine usually does not have a pointed roof.) However, Modernist roots of Modernist Postmodernism itself appear in some noteworthy examples of "reclaiming" the roof. For example, Robert Venturi's Vuri Venturi House broke the gable roof in the middle, denied its form function, and the Philip Johnson 1001 Fifth Avenue building in Manhattan (not to be confused with the Portland Congress Center, formerly called by the same name) advertises the mansard roof shape as the front falsely clear flat. Another alternative to flat roofs of modernism would be to overstate the traditional roof to call more attention to it, such as when Kallmann McKinnell & amp; The American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Cambridge, Massachusetts, coats three levels of low-hipped roofs one on top of the other for express statements of shelter.
Relationship with previous style
New trends became clear in the last quarter of the twentieth century when some architects began to turn away from modern functionalism that they consider boring, and which some people find uncomfortable and even unpleasant. These architects are turning to the past, citing the past aspects of various buildings and combining them together (sometimes even in a harmonious way) to create new tools for designing buildings. An obvious example of this new approach is that Postmodernism sees the return of columns and other elements of premodern design, sometimes adapting classic Greek and Roman examples (but not simply creating them, as they do in neoclassical architecture). In Modernism, traditional columns (as design features) are treated as cylindrical pipe forms, replaced by other technological means such as cantilevers, or completely covered by curtain wall faÃÆ'§ades. The rise of the column is an aesthetic, not a technological necessity. The towering modern buildings become very monolithic, rejecting the concept of a pile of varied design elements for a single vocabulary from the ground up, in the most extreme cases even using a constant "trace" (without tapering or "wedding cake" design), with the building sometimes even shows the possibility of a metal extrusion directly from the ground, largely by removing the visual horizontal element - this is seen the most rigorous at the World Trade Center Minoru Yamasaki building.
Another return is the "intelligence, ornament, and reference" seen in old buildings in terra cotta decorative façade and bronze or stainless steel ornaments from the Beaux-Arts and Art Deco periods. In the Postmodern structure, this is often accomplished by placing contradictory quotations from earlier building styles next to each other, and even incorporating reference style furniture on a large scale.
Contextualism, a tendency in thought in the later part of the 20th century, influenced the ideology of the postmodern movement in general. Contextual focuses on the belief that all knowledge is "context-sensitive". This idea is even taken further to say that knowledge can not be understood without considering its context. While noteworthy examples of modern architecture responded subtly and directly to their physical context (analyzed by Thomas Schumacher in "Contextualism: the Ideals and Deformations of the City," and by Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter at the City Collage ), postmodern architecture often discusses the context in terms of material, shape and details of surrounding buildings - cultural context.
Roots of Postmodernism
The postmodernist movement is often seen (especially in the US) as an American movement, beginning in America around the 1960s 1970s and then spreading to Europe and the rest of the world, to remain true to this day. In 1966, however, architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner spoke of a revived Expression as "a new style, the successor of my Modern International in the 1930s, post-modern style", and included as an example of Le Corbusier's work in Ronchamp and Chandigarh, Denys Lasdun at Royal College of Physicians in London, Richard Sheppard at Churchill College, Cambridge, and James Stirling and James Gowan, Leicester Engineering Building, and Philip Johnson's own guest house in New Canaan, Connecticut. Pevsner disagrees with these buildings for their self-expression and irrationalism, but he recognizes them as "the legitimate style of the 1950s and 1960s" and defines their characteristics. The task of defining Postmodernism was then taken over by the welcoming younger generation rather than rejecting what they saw happening and, in the case of Robert Venturi, contributed to it.
The goal of Postmodernism or End-modernism begins with his reaction to Modernism; trying to overcome the limitations of its predecessors. The list of objectives is expanded to include communicating ideas with the public often in a funny or funny way. Often, communication is done by quoting extensively from past architectural styles, often many at once. In breaking away from modernism, it also seeks to produce buildings that are sensitive to the context in which they are built.
Postmodernism originated from the failure of modern architecture. Its preoccupation with functionalism and economical building meant that the ornaments had been removed and the buildings shrouded in a rational appearance. Many feel that the building fails to meet the human need for comfort both for the body and for the eyes, that modernism does not take into account the desire for beauty. The problem worsened when several monotonous apartment blocks slumped into slums. In response, architects sought to reintroduce the ornaments, colors, decorations and human scale into the building. Forms are no longer determined solely by minimal functional or performance requirements.
Change pedagogy
Criticism of modernism reductionism often records the abandonment of teaching architectural history as a contributing factor. The fact that a number of major players in the shift away from modernism trained at Princeton University Architecture School, where the road to history continues to be part of the design training in the 1940s and 1950s, is significant. The growing interest in history has had a huge impact on architectural education. The course of history becomes more distinctive and orderly. With a demand for knowledgeable professors in architectural history, several PhD programs in architectural schools appear to differentiate themselves from the PhD art history program, where architectural historians have previously been trained. In the US, MIT and Cornell were the first, made in the mid-1970s, followed by Columbia, Berkeley, and Princeton. Among the founders of the new architectural history program are Bruno Zevi at the Institute of Architectural History in Venice, Stanford Anderson and Henry Millon at MIT, Alexander Tzonis at the Architecture Association, Anthony Vidler at Princeton, Manfredo Tafuri at the University of Venice, Kenneth Frampton at Columbia University, and Werner Oechslin and Kurt Forster at ETH ZÃÆ'¼rich.
The creation of these programs was paralleled by recruitment, in the 1970s, historians trained professionally by architectural schools: Margaret Crawford (with a PhD from UCLA) at SCI-Arc; Elisabeth Grossman (PhD, Brown University) at Rhode Island Design School; Christian Otto (PhD, Columbia University) at Cornell University; Richard Chafee (PhD, Courtauld Institute) at Roger Williams University; and Howard Burns (MA Kings College) at Harvard, to name just a few. A second generation of scholars later emerged who began to expand this effort toward what is now called "theory": K. Michael Hays (PhD, MIT) at Harvard, Mark Wigley (PhD, Auckland University) at Princeton (now at Columbia University); and Beatriz Colomina (PhD, School of Architecture, Barcelona) at Princeton; Mark Jarzombek (PhD MIT) at Cornell (now at MIT), Jennifer Bloomer (PhD, Georgia Tech) at Iowa State and Catherine Ingraham (PhD, Johns Hopkins) now at Pratt Institute.
Postmodernism with its diversity has a sensitivity to the context and history of the building, and the requirements of the client. Postmodernist architects often consider the general requirements of urban and surrounding buildings during building design. For example, at the house of Venice Beach House in Frank Gehry, neighboring houses have the same flat color. This vernacular sensitivity is often seen, but at other times the design responds to more stylish neighbors. James Stirling's Arthur M. Sackler Museum at Harvard University features rounded corners and striped stripes associated with the shape and decor of the polychromatic Memorial Memorial across the street, although there is no imitation or historical element.
Next move
Following the postmodern blow against modernism, trends in architecture are formed, though not necessarily following the principles of postmodernism. At the same time, the movement of New Urbanism and Classical Architecture Recently promoted a sustainable approach to construction, which respects and fosters intelligent growth, architectural tradition and classical design. This is in contrast to modernist and uniformed global architecture, as well as relying on suburban housing housing and suburban sprawl. Both trends began in the 1980s. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is an award that recognizes efforts in New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture, and is endowed with a prize money twice as high as the modernist Pritzker Prize. Some postmodern architects, such as Robert A. M. Stern and Albert, Righter, & amp; Tittman, has moved from a postmodern design to a new interpretation of traditional architecture.
Postmodern architects
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