Experimental psychology refers to the work done by those who apply the experimental method to the psychological study and the underlying process. Experimental psychologists use human participants and animal subjects to learn many topics, including (among others) sensations & amp; perception, memory, cognition, learning, motivation, emotion; developmental processes, social psychology, and the neural substrate of all this.
Video Experimental psychology
Histori
Psikologi eksperimental awal
Wilhelm Wundt
Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced a mathematical and experimental approach to the field. Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Other experimental psychologists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus and Edward Titchener, included introspection among their experimental methods.
Charles Bell
Charles Bell is an English physiologist, whose major contribution is research involving nerves. He wrote a pamphlet that summarized his research on rabbits. His research concluded that the sensory nerves enter the posterior (dorsal) root of the spinal cord and the motor nerves arise from the anterior (ventral) root of the spinal cord. Eleven years later, a French physiologist Francois Magendie published the same findings without knowing Bell's research. Since Bell did not publish his research, the discovery was called the Bell-Magendie law. Bell's discovery denied the belief that nerves transmitted vibrations or spirits.
Ernst Heinrich Weber
Weber is a German physician who is regarded as one of the founders of experimental psychology. His main interests are the sense of touch and kinesthetic. His most memorable contribution is the notion that the assessment of sensory differences is relative and not absolute. This relativity is expressed in "Weber's Law," which indicates that the only visible difference, or jnd is the constant proportion of the current rate of stimulus. Weber's law is expressed as an equation:
di mana adalah intensitas stimulasi yang asli, adalah penambahan yang diperlukan untuk perbedaan yang akan dirasakan ( jnd ), dan k adalah sebuah konstanta. Jadi, agar k tetap konstan, harus meningkat ketika Saya meningkat. Hukum Weber dianggap hukum kuantitatif pertama dalam sejarah psikologi.
Gustav Fechner
Fechner published in 1860 what was considered the first work of experimental psychology, "Elemente der Psychophysik." Some historians date the beginning of experimental psychology from the publication "Elemente." Weber is not a psychologist, and Fechner is aware of the importance of Weber's research on psychology. Fechner was very interested in establishing a scientific study of the mind-body relationship, which came to be known as psychophysical. Most of Fechner's research focuses on measuring psychophysical thresholds and visible differences, and he finds psychophysical boundary methods, constant stimulation methods, and adjustment methods, which are still in use.
Oswald KÃÆ'¼lpe
Oswald KÃÆ'¼lpe is the principal founder of the WÃÆ'¼rzburg School in Germany. He was a student of Wilhelm Wundt for about twelve years. Unlike Wundt, KÃÆ'¼lpe believes experiments are possible to test higher mental processes. In 1883 he wrote Grundriss der Psychologie, which had strict scientific facts and no mention of mind. The lack of thought in his book is strange because the WÃÆ'¼rzburg School gives much emphasis on unbelieving mental and thought.
WÃÆ'¼rzburg School
The work of the WÃÆ'¼rzburg School is an important milestone in the development of experimental psychology. The school was founded by a group of psychologists led by Oswald KÃÆ'¼lpe, and it provides an alternative to the structuralism of Edward Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt. Those in school focus primarily on mental operations such as mental sets ( Einstellung ) and minds without imagination. The mental set affects perception and problem solving without individual consciousness; it can be triggered by instruction or by experience. Similarly, according to KÃÆ'¼lpe, mind without imagination consists of pure mental actions that do not involve mental images. An example of a mental set was given by William Bryan, an American student working in the KÃÆ'¼lpe lab. Bryan presents subjects with cards that have useless syllables written on them in various colors. Subjects are asked to pay attention to syllables, and therefore they do not remember the color of syllables that make no sense. These results make people question the validity of introspection as a research tool, and allow a decrease in voluntarism and structuralism. The work of the WÃÆ'¼rzburg School later influenced many Gestalt psychologists, including Max Wertheimer.
George Trumbull Ladd
Experimental psychology was introduced to the United States by George Trumbull Ladd, who founded the Yale University psychology laboratory in 1879. In 1887, Ladd published the Physiological Psychology Element , the first American textbook to extensively discuss experimental psychology. Between Ladd's founders of Yale Laboratory and his textbook, the center of experimental psychology in the USA shifts to Johns Hopkins University, where George Hall and Charles Sanders Peirce expand and qualify Wundt's work.
Charles Sanders Peirce
Together with his students Joseph Jastrow, Charles S. Peirce randomly assigns volunteers to a blind and repeated redesign to evaluate their ability to differentiate weights. Peirce's experiments inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a tradition of random experimental research in laboratories and special textbooks in the 1800s. The Peirce-Jastrow experiment was conducted as part of Peirce's pragmatic program to understand human perception; other studies consider perceptions of light, etc. While Peirce made advances in experimental psychology and psychophysics, he also developed a theory of statistical inference, published in "Illustration of Logic of Science" (1877-78) and "A Theory of Possibility of Inference" (1883); both publications that emphasize the importance of random-based inference in statistics. For Peirce and experimental psychology it is an honor to have found a random experiment, several decades before the innovations of Jerzy Neyman and Ronald Fisher in agriculture.
Peirce's pragmatic philosophy also includes an extensive theory of mental representation and cognition, which he learned under the name of semiotics. Peirce's student Joseph Jastrow continues to conduct random experiments throughout his renowned career in experimental psychology, most of which will later be recognized as cognitive psychology. There is a revival of interest in Peirce's work in cognitive psychology. Another student of Peirce, John Dewey, conducted experiments on human cognition, especially in schools, as part of "experimental logic" and "public philosophy."
20th century
In the mid-20th century, behaviorism became the dominant paradigm in psychology, especially in the United States. This causes some negligence of mental phenomena in experimental psychology. In Europe, this is less so, because European psychology is influenced by psychologists such as Sir Frederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik, W.E. Hick and Donald Broadbent, which focuses on topics such as thinking, memory, and attention. This lays the groundwork for further development of cognitive psychology.
In the second half of the 20th century, the phrase "experimental psychology" has shifted meaning because of the extension of psychology as the discipline and growth of the size and number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists use various methods and do not limit themselves to rigorous experimental approaches, in part because developments in the philosophy of science have influenced the exclusive prestige of experimentation. In contrast, experimental methods are now widely used in areas such as developmental and social psychology, which were not previously part of experimental psychology. This phrase continues to be used, however, in the titles of a number of prestigious leading public societies and scientific journals, as well as some university courses in psychology.
Maps Experimental psychology
Methodology
Sound methodologies are essential to study complex behavioral and mental processes, and this implies, in particular, the careful definition and control of the experimental variables.
Some of the underlying assumptions of psychology
As a scientific effort, experimental psychology shares some assumptions with most other sciences. Are as follows.
Empiricism
Perhaps the most basic assumption of science is that factual statements about the world must ultimately be based on world observations. This idea of ​​empiricism requires that hypotheses and theories be tested against the observation of the natural world rather than on reasoning, intuition, or a priori revelation.
Testability
Closely related to empiricism is the idea that, to be useful, the laws or scientific theories must be testable with available research methods. If a theory can not be tested in any way, then many scientists consider the theory to be meaningless. Testability implies falsifiability, which is the idea that some sets of observations can prove the theory wrong. Testability has been emphasized in psychology because influential or well-known theories such as Freud's theory have been difficult to test.
Determinism
Experimental psychologists, like most scientists, accept the notion of determinism. This is the assumption that every state of an object or event is determined by its previous state. In other words, behavioral or mental phenomena are usually expressed as cause and effect. If a phenomenon is quite general and is widely confirmed, it can be called "law"; psychological theories serve to regulate and integrate the law.
Courtesy
Another guiding idea of ​​science is stinginess, the search for simplicity. For example, most scientists agree that if two theories deal with a set of empirical observations equally well, we should prefer a simpler or more parsimony of both. A noteworthy early argument for parsimony was put forward by the medieval English philosopher William of Occam, and for this reason the principle of stinginess is often referred to as Occam's razor.
Operational definition
Some famous behaviors such as Edward C. Tolman and Clark Hull popularized the idea of ​​operation, or operational definition. The operational definition implies that concepts are defined in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Experimental psychologists try to define phenomena that can not currently be observed, such as mental events, by linking them to observations with the chain of reasoning.
Experiments
In experiments, human participants often respond to visual, auditory or other stimuli, following instructions given by the experiment; animals may be the same "instructed" by providing appropriate responses. Since the 1990s, computers were generally used to automate stimulus presentations and behavioral measurements in the laboratory. Behavioral experiments with humans and animals typically measure reaction time, choice between two or more alternatives, and/or level or strength of response; they can also record movements, facial expressions, or other behaviors. Experiments with humans can also get a written response before, during, and after the experimental procedure. Psychophysiological experiments, on the other hand, measure the brain or (mostly in animals) single cell activation during a stimulus presentation using methods such as fMRI, EEG, PET or something similar.
Control of foreign variables, minimizing the potential for experimental bias, offsetting the sequence of experimental tasks, adequate sample size, the use of operational definitions, emphasis on reliability and validity of results, and appropriate statistical analysis are central to experimental methods in psychology.. Because understanding of these things is important for data interpretation in almost all areas of psychology, undergraduate programs in psychology typically include mandatory courses in research methods and statistics.
An important experiment is an experiment that is intended to test multiple hypotheses at the same time. Ideally, one hypothesis can be confirmed and the other rejected. However, the data may also be consistent with some hypotheses, results that require further research to narrow the possibilities.
A pilot study can run before a large trial, to try different procedures, determine the optimal value of the experimental variable, or reveal weaknesses in the experimental design. The pilot study may not be an experiment as it is usually defined; may, for example, consist only of self-reports.
In field trials , participants were observed in naturalistic settings outside the laboratory. Field trials differ from field studies that some parts of the environment ( field ) are manipulated in a controlled way (for example, researchers provide different types of toys for two different groups of children in nursery school). Controls are usually more lax than in laboratory settings.
Other research methods such as case studies, interviews, polls, and naturalistic observations, are often used by psychologists. This is not an experimental method, because they lack aspects such as well-defined, controlled variables, randomization, and isolation of undesirable variables.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Reliability measures the consistency or repetition of an observation. For example, one way to assess reliability is the "re-test" method, which is done by measuring a group of participants at a time and then testing it a second time to see if the results are consistent. Since the first test itself can change the second test result, other methods are often used. For example, in "split-half" sizes, a group of participants is randomly divided into two comparable subgroups, and reliability is measured by comparing test results from these groups. It is important to note that reliable measures need not yield conclusions that valid.
Validity
Validity measures the relative accuracy or truth of conclusions drawn from the study. To determine the validity of a measurement quantitatively, it must be compared against a criterion. For example, to determine the validity of an academic ability test, the test can be given to a group of students and the results are correlated with the grade-grade average of the individuals in the group. As this example shows, there is often controversy in the selection of appropriate criteria for a given measure. In addition, a conclusion can only apply as far as the observations on which it is based can be trusted.
Some types of validity have been distinguished, as follows:
Internal validity
Internal validity refers to the extent to which a series of research findings provide interesting information about causality. High internal validity implies that the experimental design of a study excludes foreign influences, so one can confidently conclude that variations in independent variables cause changes observed in the dependent variable.
External validity
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to apply to situations other than experiments - for example, to others, other physical or social environments, or even other cultures.
Build validity
The validity of the constructs refers to the extent to which independent and dependent variables in a study represent interesting abstract hypothetical variables. In other words, it relates to whether the variable being manipulated and/or measured in a study accurately reflects the variable that the researcher expects for manipulation. Building validity also reflects the quality of one's operational definition. If a researcher has done a good job of turning the abstract into the observed, the validity of the construct is high.
Conceptual validity
Conceptual validity refers to how well certain research maps to the broader theories are designed to be tested. The validity of concepts and constructs has many similarities, but conceptual validity connects a study with broad theoretical issues whereas construct validity is more concerned with special manipulations and actions.
Measurement scales
Measurements can be defined as "assignment of numbers to objects or events by rule." Almost all psychological experiments involve some sort of measurement, if only to determine the reliability and validity of the results, and of course measurement is essential if the results should be relevant to quantitative theory.
The rules for assigning numbers to properties of an object or event are called "scales". The following is the basic scale used in psychological measurements.
Nominal measurements
On a nominal scale, numbers are used only as labels - letters or names will also work. Examples are numbers on soccer or baseball shirts. Labels are more useful if the same label can be assigned to more than one thing, which means that they are the same in some ways, and can be classified together.
Ordinal measurements
The ordinal scale arises from the order or rank of the object, so that A is greater than B, B is greater than C, and so on. Many psychological experiments produce these numbers; for example, a participant may be able to rank the smell like A more fun than B, and B is more fun than C, but this rank ("1, 2, 3...") will not know how much each odor differs from that other. Some statistics can be calculated from ordinal sizes - for example, median, percentile, and sequence correlations - but others, such as standard deviations, can not be used correctly.
Interval measurement
The interval scale is constructed by determining the difference equation between the things measured. That is, the numbers form an interval scale when the difference between the numbers corresponds to the difference between the properties measured. For example, one can say that the difference between 5 and 10 degrees on the Fahrenheit thermometer equals the difference between 25 and 30, but it does not mean to say something with a temperature of 20 degrees Fahrenheit "twice as hot" as something with a temperature of 10 degrees. (Such a ratio is meaningful on an absolute temperature scale like the Kelvin scale See next section.) The "standard score" on achievement tests is said to be measurements on the interval scale, but this is difficult to prove.
Measurement ratio
The ratio scale is built by determining the equivalence ratio. For example, if, on a balance instrument, object A balances two identical objects B, then it can be said that A is twice as heavy as B and can give them the corresponding number, for example "A weight of 2 grams" and "B weight 1 gram". The main idea is that such ratios remain the same regardless of the unit of scale used; for example, the ratio of A to B remains the same, either gram or ounce is used. Kelvin's length, endurance, and temperature are other things that can be measured on a ratio scale. Some psychological traits such as sound loudness can be measured on a ratio scale.
Design research
One-way design
The simplest experimental design is a one-way design, in which there is only one independent variable. The simplest type of one-way design involves only two groups, each of which receives one value from an independent variable. The design of two groups usually consisted of an experimental group (a group receiving care) and a control group (a group not receiving care).
One-way design can be extended to one-way design, multiple groups. Here one independent variable takes three or more levels. This type of design is very useful because it helps to decipher the functional relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Factorial design
One-way design is limited because it allows researchers to see only one independent variable at a time, while many interesting phenomena depend on several variables. Therefore, R.A Fisher popularized the use of factorial design. The factorial design contains two or more independent variables that are completely "crossed," meaning that each level of each independent variable appears in combination with each level of all other independent variables. The factorial design carries a label that determines the number of independent variables and the number of levels of each independent variable present in the design. For example, 2x3 factorial design has two independent variables (since there are two numbers in the description), the first variable has two levels and the second has three.
Main effects and interactions
The effect of the independent variables in the factorial study, taken singly, is called the main effect. This refers to the overall effect of independent variables, on average at all levels of other independent variables. The main effect is the only detectable effect in a one-way design. Often more important than the main effect is "interaction", which occurs when the influence of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of the second independent variable. For example, the ability to catch a ball (dependent variable) may depend on the visual acuity interaction (independent variable # 1) and the size of the captured ball (independent variable # 2). A person with good eyesight may catch small balls easily, and people with very poor eyesight may be better with big balls, so the two variables can be said to interact.
Designs in and between subjects
The two basic approaches to research design are the design in the subject and the design between the subjects. In the subject or design of repeated measurements, each participant serves more than one or all of the research conditions. Among the design subjects each participant only works in one experimental condition. The design in the subject has a significant advantage over the design between the subjects, especially when it comes to complex factorial designs that have many conditions. In particular, in-subject design eliminates people messing up, that is, they get rid of the effect caused by the difference between subjects that are not relevant to the phenomenon under study. However, the design within the subject has serious disadvantages of possible sequence effects. Because each participant serves in more than one condition, the passage of time or the performance of the previous task may affect the performance of the next task. For example, a participant may learn something from the first task affecting the second.
Experimental tool
The instruments used in experimental psychology evolved along with technical progress and with the demands of experimental change. The earliest instruments, such as the Hipp Chronograph and the chimograph, were originally used for other purposes. The list below exemplifies several different instruments used over the years.
Chronograph Hipp/chronograph
This instrument, dating from about 1850, uses a vibrating reed to mark time in 1000 seconds. Originally designed for experiments in physics, it was later adapted to study the velocity of a bullet. Once later introduced to physiology, it was eventually used in psychology to measure reaction time and the duration of mental processes.
Stereoscope
The first stereoscope was invented by Wheatstone in 1838. It presents two slightly different images, one for each eye, at the same time. Typically an image is a photo of the same object taken from a camera position that mimics the position and separation of the eyes on the head. When one looks through a stereoscope, the images merge into a single image that conveys a strong sense of depth and solidity.
Kymograph
Developed by Carl Ludwig in the 19th century, a chimogram is a rotating drum in which a moving stylus tracks the size of multiple measurements as a function of time. Kymograph is similar to polygraph, which has a paper strip that moves under one or more pens. Kymograph was originally used to measure blood pressure and was then used to measure muscle contraction and speech sound. In psychology, it is often used to record the response time.
Photokymographs
This device is a photography recorder. It used mirrors and light to record photos. In a small box with a gap for light, there are two rollers with a film that connect the two. Light enters through a gap to record on film. Some photokymographs have lenses so that the appropriate speed for film can be achieved.
Galvanometer
The galvanometer is the earliest instrument used to measure electric current strength. Hermann von Helmholtz uses it to detect electrical signals generated by nerve impulses, and thus measure the time taken by the impulse to travel between two points on the nerve.
Audiometer
This equipment is designed to produce multiple fixed frequencies at varying intensity levels. It can send a tone to the subject's ears or send an oscillating sound to the skull. An experiment will generally use an audiometer to find the hearing threshold of a subject. Data received from the audiometer is called an audiogram.
Colorimeter
It determines the color composition by measuring tricolor characteristics or matching color samples. This type of device will be used in visual experiments.
Algesiometers and algometers
Both are mechanical stimulation of pain. They have pointed point like a sharp needle so it does not give the sensation of pressure. The experiment used this when experimenting on analgesia.
Olfactometer
Olfactometer is any tool used to measure the sense of smell. The most basic type in the initial study was to place a subject in a room containing a certain amount measured from an odorless substance. A more complicated device involves some form of sniffing device, such as a bottle neck. The most common olfactometer found in psychology laboratories at one point is Zwaardemker olfactometer. The two glass nose tubes project through the screen. One end will be inserted into the stimulus chamber, the other end is inserted directly into the nostrils.
Labyrinth
Perhaps one of the oldest instruments to study memory is the labyrinth. The general goal is to get from point A to point B, but the maze can vary in size and complexity. Two types of labyrinths commonly used with mice are the labyrinth of radial arm and Morris water maze. The radial arm labyrinth consists of several arms radiating from a central point. Each arm has a small piece of food at the end. Morris's water labyrinth is intended to test spatial learning. It uses a large, blurred, round pool of water. Rats must swim around until they find a breakout platform hidden from view just below the water's surface.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
EEG is an instrument that can reflect the electrical activity of the marrow of nerve cell assemblies in the brain. It was originally used as an attempt to improve medical diagnosis. Then it becomes a key instrument for psychologists in examining brain activity and remains the key instrument used in the field today.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
FMRI is an instrument that can detect changes in blood oxygen levels over time. Increased oxygen levels in the blood show where brain activity occurs. This is a rather large and expensive instrument commonly found in hospitals. They are most commonly used for cognitive experiments.
Positron emission tomography (PET)
PET is also used to see the brain. Can detect drugs that bind to neurotransmitter receptors in the brain. The down side for PET is the need for radioisotopes to be injected into the body so that brain activity can be mapped. Radioisotopes rot quickly so they do not accumulate in the body.
Some research areas that use experimental methods
The use of experimental methods may be the main characteristic in which psychology becomes indistinguishable from philosophy in the late nineteenth century. Since then, experiments have become an integral part of most psychological research. The following are examples of some of the key areas that use experimental methods.
Cognitive psychology
Some of the main topics studied by cognitive psychologists are memory, learning, problem solving, and attention. Most cognitive experiments are conducted in the laboratory, not in the social environment; this is done primarily to provide maximum control of the experimental variables and minimal disruption of irrelevant events and other aspects of the situation. Lots of experimental methods are used; frequently used methods are described on the main page of the topic just listed. In addition to studying behavior, researchers can use fMRI or PET so they can see which areas of the brain are active during the cognitive process.
Animal cognition
Animal cognition refers to the mental capacity of non-human animals, and research in this field often focuses on matters similar to the interests of cognitive psychologists using human participants. Cognitive studies using animals can often control conditions more closely and use methods that are not open to research with humans. In addition, processes such as my conditioning appear in simpler forms in animals, certain animals display unique capacities (such as the location of echoes in bats) that clarify important cognitive functions, and animal studies often have important implications for survival and species evolution.
Sensation and perception
Experiments on sensation and perception have a very long history in experimental psychology (See History above). Experiments usually manipulate stimuli that affect vision, hearing, touch, smell, tasting, and propioception. Sensory measurements play a large role in the field, covering many aspects of sensory performance - for example, the lowest discriminant differences in brightness or odor detection; Such measurements involve the use of instruments such as oscillators, attenuators, stroboscopes, and many others listed earlier in this article. The experiment also investigates subtle phenomena such as visual illusions, or emotions generated by various types of stimuli.
Psychology of behavior
Behavioristic approach to psychology reached its peak of popularity in the mid-20th century but still underlies a lot of experimental research and clinical applications. Its founders include figures such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov's experimental study of the digestive system in dogs led to extensive experiments in which he established the basic principles of classical conditioning. Watson popularized the behaviorist approach to human behavior; his experiments with Little Albert are very famous. Skinner distinguished the conditioning operand from the classical conditioning and established an experimental analysis of behavior as a major component in the subsequent development of experimental psychology.
Social psychology
Social psychologists use experimental methods, both inside and outside the laboratory, in an attempt to understand human social interactions. Two widely quoted experiments in social psychology experiments were the Stanford prison experiments conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 and the Milgram obedience experiment by Stanley Milgram. In both experiments, ordinary individuals are induced to engage in very cruel behavior, suggesting that such behavior can be greatly influenced by social pressures. Due to the possible negative effects on the participants, none of these experiments can be legally validated in the United States today.
Institutional review board (IRB)
In the United States, Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) play an important role in monitoring the behavior of psychological experiments. Their presence is required by law at institutions such as universities where psychological research takes place. The goal is to ensure that the experiment does not violate the code of ethics or legal requirements; so they protect human subjects from physical or psychological harm and ensure the humane treatment of animal subjects. The IRB should review the procedure to be used in each experiment before it can begin. IRB also ensures that human participants provide informed consent in advance; that is, the participants are told the general nature of the experiment and what will be required of them. There are three types of reviews that IRB can do - free, expedited, and reviewed. More information is available on the IRB main page.
Criticism
There are several critics of experimental psychology.
Historical psychology
Since the 1960s, historians have criticized psychology from a post-colonial, social, cultural, and gender perspective. Kurt Danziger, for example, argues that psychological experiments have many origins, each embedded in certain social relationships. In the Leipzig model, experiments and subjects often exchanged roles. In fact, the data source, the subject, is given a more important role than the experiment. In the model of Paris hypnosis, on the contrary, is based on a clear differentiation of the role of experiment and subject, which resembles a doctor-patient relationship. The American model innovatively combines these two traditions. It inherits a distinct role difference in the Paris model, but changes its interest from the analysis of psychological content to the distribution of individual characteristics.
Frankfurt School
A school that opposes experimental psychology has been linked with the Frankfurt School, which calls its idea "Critical Theory." Critical psychologists claim that experimental psychology approaches humans as entities independent of the cultural, economic, and historical context in which they exist. The context of human mental processes and behavior is ignored, according to critical psychologists, such as Herbert Marcuse. Thus, experimental psychologists painted inaccurate human portraits while lending silent support to the prevailing social order, according to critical theorists such as Theodor Adorno and JÃÆ'¼rgen Habermas (in their essay in The Positivist Debate in German Sociology) ).
However, critical theory itself is criticized. While the philosopher Karl Popper "never took their methodology (anything that might mean) seriously" (p.Ã, 289), Popper wrote counter-criticism to reduce irrationalist 'and' destruction of intelligence 'span>' "" political influence "of the student's critical theory (Karl Popper page 288-300 in The Positivist Debate in German Sociology). The critical theorists Adorno and Marcuse have been heavily criticized by Alasdair MacIntyre at Herbert Marcuse: An Exposition and Polemic . Like Popper, MacIntyre attacked critical theorists such as Adorno and especially Marcuse as obscurantists pontificating dogma in the authoritarian mode of professors of German philosophy in their era - before World War II - (page 11); Popper made similar criticisms of critical theory rhetoric, reflecting the culture of Hegel's social studies at German universities (pp. 293-94). Furthermore, MacIntyre mocks Marcuse as a resurrection of the senilist young Hegelian tradition criticized by Marx and Engels (pp. 18-19, 41, and 101); likewise, "the resurgence of the critical theory of Hetianism and the return of young by Karl Marx by Popper (p.293) Marcuse's support for the Chinese Maoist re-education camps was also criticized as totalitarian by MacIntyre (pp. 101-05) Critical Theories Adorno and Marcuse have been criticized as degenerating from the original Frankfurt school, in particular the work of empirical psychologist Erich Fromm, who conducted surveys and experiments to study the development of personality in response to the economic and social pressures changed (Introduction Michael Macoby to Fromm's
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