Greek Temple (Ancient Greek: ???? , translit.Ã, naÃÆ'³s , lit.Ã, 'dwelling', semantically different from Latin templum ," temple ") is a structure built to place the statue of the god in the Greek shrines in the ancient Greek religion. The interior of the temple does not serve as a meeting place, because sacrifices and rituals dedicated to each deity take place outside them, in a larger area of ​​the sanctuary, which may be large. Temples are often used to store votive offerings. They are the most important and most extensive type of building in Greek architecture. In the Hellenistic empire of Southwest Asia and North Africa, buildings erected to fulfill temple functions often continue to follow local traditions. Even where Greek influence is seen, such structures are not usually regarded as Greek temples. This applies, for example, to Graeco-Parthian and Bactrian temples, or to the example of Ptolemy, which follows the Egyptian tradition. Most Greek temples are astronomically oriented.
Between the 9th century BC and 6th century BC, ancient Greek temples evolved from small mudbrick structures into monumental buildings with double-doted columns on all sides, often reaching over 20 meters in height (excluding the roof). Stylishly, they are governed by special regional architectural orders. While the initial difference between Doric and Ionic commands, a third alternative emerged at the end of the 3rd century BC with the Corinthian order. Many different base plans are developed, each of which can be combined with the superstructure in different orders. From the 3rd century BC onwards, the construction of large temples became less common; after the 2nd century BC developed, it ceased almost entirely in the 1st century BC. After that, only smaller structures are just beginning, while older temples are continuously renovated or resolved if in an unfinished state.
The Greek temple is designed and built according to the proportion set, largely determined by the lower column diameter or by the dimension of the foundation level. The almost mathematical firmness of the achieved basic design is achieved by optical refinement. Apart from the still-widespread ideal images, Greek temples are painted, so bright red and blue contrast with white from building stones or stucco. The more elaborate temples are equipped with rich figural decorations in the form of reliefs and pedimental statues. The construction of the temple is usually arranged and financed by the cities or by the administration of the holy places. Individuals, especially Hellenistic rulers, can also sponsor such buildings. In the late Hellenistic period, their diminishing financial wealth, together with the progressive incorporation of the Greek world within the Roman state, whose officials and rulers took over as sponsors, led to the end of the construction of the Greek temple. New temples are now included in the traditions of Roman temples, which, apart from the very strong Greek influence upon them, are devoted to different purposes and follow different aesthetic principles (for comparison, see other articles.
The main temple building is located in a larger area or temenos, usually surrounded by a fence or peribolos wall. The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous example, though it appears to be walled as a fortress before a temple is built there. This may include many additional buildings, jungle or holy springs, animals dedicated to gods, and sometimes people who have taken refuge from the law, which some temples offer, for example to escaped slaves.
Video Ancient Greek temple
Development
Origins
The earliest Greek sanctuaries may lack the temple buildings, although our knowledge of this is limited, and the subject is controversial. The typical early sanctuary seems to consist of tenemos, often around sacred forests, caves or springs, and may only be determined by stone markers at intervals, with altars for offerings. Many rustic sanctuaries may remain in this style, but the more popular are gradually able to construct buildings to store heretical images, especially in the cities. This process is definitely running in the 9th century, and probably started earlier.
The Megaron Mycenaean (15th century to 13th century BC) was a precursor to the ancient Greek and Greek temples, but during the Greek dark ages the buildings became smaller and less monumental. The basic principles for the development of Greek temple architecture have their roots between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC. In its simplest form as naos , the temple is a simple rectangular shrine with prominent sidewalls (antae), forming a small porch. Until the 8th century BC, there was also an apsidal structure with semicircular rear wall more or less, but the rectangular type holds. By adding columns to these small base structures, the Greeks sparked the development and diversity of their temple architecture.
The Temple of Isthmia, built in 690 - 650 BC is probably the first true Archaic temple with its monumental size, sturdy pillars and tile roofs that set Isthmian temples apart from contemporary buildings.
Wood architecture: Beginning Archaic
The first temples were mostly made of mud, bricks, and marble structures on stone foundations. Columns and suprastructures (entablature) are wood, door openings and antae are protected by wooden planks. Mud brick walls are often reinforced by wooden poles, in the form of semi-timber techniques. The simple and clearly structured wood architectural elements produce all the important design principles that determine the development of Greek temples over the centuries.
Toward the end of the 7th century BC, the dimensions of this simple structure increased considerably. Temple C in Thermos is the first of the hekatompedoi, a temple with a length of 100 feet (30 m). Because it was technically impossible to cover the vast spaces of the time, these temples remained very narrow, with a width of 6 to 10 meters.
To emphasize the importance of the cult statue and the building holding it, the naos is equipped with a canopy, supported by columns. The resulting set of porticos around the temples on all sides (peristasis) is exclusively used for temples in Greek architecture.
The combination of temples with porticos ( ptera ) on all sides poses a new aesthetic challenge for architects and customers: the structure must be built for viewing in all directions. This led to the development of peripteros , with the frontal pronaos (home), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the rear of the building, opisthodomos i>, which is important for completely aesthetic reasons.
Introduction to stone architecture: Archaic and Classical
After the re-introduction of stone architecture, the essential elements and forms of each temple, such as the number of columns and rows of columns, experienced constant changes throughout the Greek period.
In the 6th century BC, Ionian Samos developed double-colonnaded dipteros as an alternative to a peripteros single. . The idea was then copied in Didyma, Ephesus and Athena. Between the 6th and late 6th century BC, many temples were built; almost every policeman, each colony contains one or more. There are also temples on extra-urban sites and in major shrines like Olympia and Delphi.
Observed form changes show a search for a harmonious form of all architectural elements: its development begins with a simpler, earlier form which often seems rough and large to aesthetic perfection and subsequent structural refinement; from simple experiments to the strict mathematical complexity of land plans and superstructure.
Decrease of Greek temple building: Hellenistic period
From the earliest Hellenistic period onwards, Greek peripheral shrines lost a lot of importance. With very few exceptions, the construction of the Classical temple stopped well in Hellenistic Greece and in the Greek colony of Magna Graecia. Only the western part of Asia Minor maintained the construction of low temples during the 3rd century BC. The construction of large projects, such as the temple of Apollo in Didyma near Miletus and Artemision in Sardis did not make much progress.
The 2nd century BC saw the rise of temple architecture, including peripteral temples. This is partly due to the influence of Hermogenes architect from Priene, which redefines the principles of Ionic temple construction both in practice and through theoretical work. At the same time, the rulers of the various Hellenistic kingdoms provided abundant financial resources. Their self-aggression, competition, the desire to stabilize the environment of their influence, and increased conflict with Rome (partly played in the field of culture), combined to release much energy into the resurrection of the complex Greek temple architecture. During this phase, the Greek temples became widespread in southern Asia Minor, Egypt and North Africa.
But apart from the examples and positive conditions generated by the economic progress and high level of technical innovation in the 3rd and 2nd century BC, Hellenistic religious architecture is largely represented by many small temples in antis i> and prostyle temples, as well as small temples ( naiskoi ). The latter has been established in important places, in the market square, near springs and roads, since the Archaic period, but reaches their main development now. This limitation for smaller structures leads to the development of a special form, pseudoperipteros , which uses the columns involved along the cella wall to produce the illusion of a peripheral temple. The earliest case of this is the temple L in Epidauros, followed by many prominent Roman examples, such as Maison CarrÃÆ'Â © e in NÃÆ'®mes.
End of construction of Greek temple: Roman Greece
At the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Mithridatic Wars led to a change of architectural practice. The role of sponsors is increasingly being taken by Roman judges from the Eastern provinces, who rarely show their generosity by building temples. Nevertheless, some temples are established today, eg. The Temple of Aphrodite in Aphrodisias.
The introduction of the principal led to several new buildings, mostly temples for imperial cults or Roman gods, such as Jupiter temple in Baalbek. Although the new temples for the Greek gods are still being built, for example Tychaion in Selge they tend to follow the canonical form of the emerging Roman empire's architectural style or to retain local non-Greek uniqueness, such as temples in Petra or Palmyra. The escalation of eastern romanization led to the end of the architecture of the Greek temple, although work continued on the completion of large unfinished structures such as the Apollo temple at Didyma or Olympieion in Athens in the 2nd century AD.
Tempt abandonment and conversion: Late Antiquity
The Decodation of Theodosius I and his successors on the throne of the Roman Empire, which forbade pagan cults, led to the gradual closure of Greek temples, or their conversion into Christian churches.
Thus ended the history of the Greek temple, although many of them remained used for a long time afterwards. For example, the Parthenon of Athens, first concentrated as a church was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest and remained structurally unscathed until the 17th century. Only the adverse effects of Venetian cannons into the building were then used to store gunpowder, causing the destruction of most of this important temple, more than 2,000 years after it was built.
Maps Ancient Greek temple
Structure
The canonical Greek temples retained the same basic structure for centuries. The Greeks used a number of spatial components, influenced plans, and architectural members, determining altitude.
Floor plan
Naos
The central cults structure of the temple is naos or Cella, which usually contains a statue of a cult deity. In the Archaic temples, a separate space, called adyton is sometimes inserted after cella for this purpose. In Sicily, this habit continues into the Classical period.
Pronaos and opisthodomos
In front of the cella , there is a porch, pronaos , made by a prominent sidewall of cella ( antae) , and two columns are placed between them. A door allows cella to be accessed from pronaos . The same space behind the cella is called opisthodomos . No door connecting opisthodomos with cella ; its existence is demanded entirely by aesthetic considerations: to maintain the consistency of peripheral temples and to ensure their visibility from all sides, the implementation of the front should be repeated in the back. Restricted space, adyton , may be included on the far end cella , reserve on opisthodomos .
Peristasis
Complexes formed by naos , pronaos , opisthodomos and possibly adyton are flanked on all four sides by peristasis , usually one row, rarely double, column. It produces a nearby porch, pteron , which offers shelter for visitors of the shrine and the space for a cult procession.
- Floorplate elements
Package type
These components enable the realization of different types of plans in the architecture of Greek temples. The simplest example of the Greek temple is the templum in antis , a small rectangular structure that protects the cult sculpture. In front of cella, a small porch or
If the antique foyer in antis has a row usually four or six columns in front of the whole width, the temple is depicted as a prostylos or temple prostyle . All pronaos can be removed in this case or leave antae without columns. An amphiprostylos or amphiprostyle repeats the same column settings in the back.
Instead, the terms peripteros or peripterals designate a temple surrounded by ptera (poles) on all four sides, each of which is usually formed by a single row of columns. This produces an unobstructed porch around, peristasis , on all four sides of the temple. The Hellenistic and Roman form of this form is pseudoperipteros , in which the side column of the peristasis is indicated only by columns or pilasters involved directly into the external cella wall.
A dipteros or dipteral is equipped with double doubles on all four sides, sometimes with further column rows on the front and back. A pseudodipteros has involved a column in the inner row of the column on the side.
Circular temples form a special type. If they are surrounded by columns, they are known as the tholoi peripteral. Despite the sacred character, their function as a temple is often unconfirmed. The comparable structure is monopteros , or cyclostyle which, however, does not have cella .
To clarify the type of spatial plan, the defining term can be combined, resulting in terms such as: peripheral double antenna, prostyle in antis , amphiprostyle peripteral, etc.
column number terminology
An additional definition, already used by Vitruvius (IV, 3, 3) is determined by the number of columns in front. Modern scholarship uses the following terms:
The term dodekastylos is only used for the 12-column hall at Didymaion. There is no temple with its wide facade known.
Very few temples have an unbalanced number of columns on the front. Examples are the Temple of Hera I in Paestum, the Temple of Apollo A in Metapontum, both of which have a width of nine columns (enneastyle), and the Archaic temple on the Termos with a five-column width (pentastyle).
Altitude
The height of the Greek temple is always divided into three zones: crepidoma , columns and entablature.
Foundation and krepidoma
Stereobates, euthynteria and crepidoma form the temple substructure. The underground foundation of a Greek temple is known as stereobate. It consists of several layers of quadratic stone blocks. The top layer, euthynteria , partially protrudes above ground level. Its surface is carefully smoothed and flattened. This supports the further foundation of the three steps, crepidoma . The topmost level of crepidoma provides the surface where the column and wall are placed; it's called stylobate.
Column
Placed on the stylobate is a vertical column axis, tapered towards the top. They are usually made of several separate cut column drums. Depending on the architectural arrangement, a number of distinct lines are cut into the column shaft: Doric columns have 18 to 20 lines, the Ionic and Corinthian usually have 24. The initial Ionic columns have up to 48 lines. While the Doric columns stand directly on the stylobate, the Ionic and Corinthian have bases, sometimes also placed on top of pedestals.
In the Doric column, the upper part is formed by a concrete neck curved, hypotrachelion , and the capital, in the Ionic column, the capital sits directly above the stem. In the framework of Doric, the capital consists of a circular torus bulge, initially very flat, called echinus , and a square plate, the abacus . In the course of its development, echinus extends more and more, culminating in a linear diagonal, at 45 ° to vertical. The echinus of the Ionic column is adorned with an egg-and-arrow band followed by a sculpted pillow forming two volute, supporting thin abacus . The eponymous Corinthian capital of the Corinthian order is crowned by rings of stylish acanthus leaves, forming tendrils and lines that reach to the corners of the abacus . .
Entablature
The capital supports entablature. In the Doric order, entablature always consists of two parts, architrave and Doric frieze (or triglyph frieze). The Ionic sequences of Athena and Cyclades also use ornaments on top of the architrave, whereas the decor remained unknown in the Ionic architecture of Asia Minor until the 4th century BC. There, the architrave is immediately followed by dentil . Frieze was originally placed in front of the roof beam, which was only seen externally in the early temples of Asia Minor. The Doric decoration is governed by triglif. It is placed on the axis of each column, and above the center of each intercolumniation. The spaces between the triglif contain metope, sometimes painted or decorated with relief sculptures. In an Ionic or Corinthian order, the frieze has no triglif and is only left flat, sometimes decorated with paintings or reliefs. With the introduction of stone architecture, the protection of the portico and the support of roof construction is moved up to the level of geison, depriving the decoration of its structural functions and transforming it into a fully decorative. features. Often, cella is also decorated with architrave and frieze, especially on the front of pronaos .
Cornice and geison
Above decorations, or intermediate members, e.g. dentile oron or Corinthian order, cornices stand out prominently. It consists of geison (on the oblique side or pediments of narrow geo italics ), and sima . On the long side, sima , often intricately decorated, equipped with water spouts, often lion-shaped. The pedimental triangle or tympanon on the narrow side of the temple was created by Doric introduction of the pointed roof, the previous temple often having a hipped roof. The tympanon is usually richly decorated with myth or battle scene sculptures. The angle and back of the roof are decorated with acroteria, geometric decor, then flower or figural.
Aspect
As far as possible topographically, the temples stand freely and are designed to be seen from all sides. They are not usually designed with consideration for their environment, but form an autonomous structure. This is the main difference from Roman temples that are often designed as part of a planned city square or square and have a strong emphasis on frontal views.
Design and measurement
Proportion
The foundations of a Greek temple can reach dimensions of up to 115 times 55 m, which is the size of an average soccer field. The column can reach a height of 20 m. To design such a large architectural body in harmony, some basic aesthetic principles are developed and tested in smaller temples. The main measurements are the legs, varying between 29 and 34 cm from region to region. This initial measurement is the basis for all units that determine the shape of the temple. Important factors include lower column diameter and width of their base. The distance between the column axis (intercolumniation or bay) can also be used as a base unit. These measurements are in proportion set for other design elements, such as column height and column spacing. In relation to the number of columns per side, they also specify the appropriate dimensions of stylobate and peristasis , as well as from naos . The rules concerning vertical proportions, especially in the Doric framework, also allow for the reduction of basic design choices for entablature of the same principle. The alternative to this highly rational system was sought in temples in the late seventh and early 6th century BC, when it sought to develop a basic measurement of the planned cella or stylobate dimensions, reverse the system described above and deduce a unit smaller than larger. So, for example, the length of cella is sometimes set at 100 feet (100 is the sacred number, also known from the hecatomb, the sacrifice of 100 animals), and all the measurements should further be in relation to this amount, leading to an unsatisfactory aesthetic solution.
Naos-peristasis relationship
Another key design feature is the connecting link naos and peristasis . In the original temple, this will be entirely subject to practical needs, and is always based on axial relationships between the walls and columns of cella , but the introduction of stone architecture breaks the connection. Nevertheless, it survives throughout the Ionic architecture. However, in the Doric temple, the wooden roof construction, originally placed behind the decor, now starts at a higher level, behind the geison. This terminates the structural relationship between the frieze and the roof; the last structural element can now be placed independent of the axial relationship. Consequently, the cella walls lose their fixed connection with the column for a long time and can be freely placed inside peristasis . Only after a long developmental phase, the architects chose the alignment of the outer wall face with adjacent axis columns as a mandatory principle for the Doric temple. Doric temples in Greater Greece rarely follow this system.
Column formulas
The basic proportions of the building are determined by the numerical relations of the columns in front and back with those on the sides. The classic solution chosen by the Greek architect is the formula "frontal column: side column = n: (2n 1)", which can also be used for the number of intercolumniations. As a result, many classical period temples in Greece ( c) 500 to 336 BC) have 6 ÃÆ'â € "13 columns or 5 ÃÆ'â €" 11 antarsatukan. The same proportion, in a more abstract form, determines most of the Parthenon, not only in 8 ÃÆ'17 columns peristasis , but also, reduced to 4: 9, in all other basic measurements, including interolumniations, stylobates , the widest proportions of the entire building, and geison (here reversed to 9: 4). Column distance
From the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the proportion of column widths to the intercolumnic space, the intercommunal, played an increasingly important role in architectural theory, reflected, for example, in the works of Vitruvius. According to this proportion, Vitruvius (3, 3, 1 ff) distinguishes between five different design concepts and temple types:
- Pyknostyle, column-tight: intercolumnium = 1 Ã,½ lower column diameter
- Systyle, close-columned: intercolumnium = 2 bottom column diameter
- Eustyle, has a nice column: intercolumnium = 2 ¼ lower column diameter
- Diastyle, board-column: interkolumnium = 3 bottom column diameter
- Araeostyle, column-light: intercolumnium = 3 Ã,½ lower column diameter
The determination and discussion of these basic principles goes back to Hermogenes, which Vitruvius credits with the discovery of eustylos . The Temple of Dionysus in Teos, usually considered to be derived from Hermogenes, does have an intercolumnia of 2 & amp; frac16; of the bottom column diameter.
Optical enhancements
To loosen mathematical rigidity and to counteract the distortion of human visual perception, a slight curvature of the entire building, barely visible to the naked eye, was introduced. Ancient architects have come to realize that long horizontal lines tend to make the optical impression sag to the center. To prevent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or entablature are raised a few centimeters toward the center of the building. This mathematical straight line avoidance also includes a column, which is not linearly tapered, but enhanced by "swelling" ( entasis ) from the shaft. In addition, the columns are placed with a slight tendency toward the center of the building. Curvature and entasis occur from the mid-6th century BC and beyond.
The most consistent use of these principles is seen in the Parthenon Classics in the Acropolis of Athens. Its curvature affects all horizontal elements to sima, even the cella walls reflect them all over their altitude. The slope of the column (which also has clear entities), is continued by architrave and triglyph frieze, the outer walls of cella also reflect. There are no building blocks, no architrave or frieze elements that can be carved as simple squares. All architectural elements display slight variations from right angles, individually calculated for each block. As a side effect, any preserved building blocks of Parthenon, its columns, cella or entablature walls, can be positioned exactly today. In spite of the extra-large efforts made in this perfection, the Parthenon, including its sculptural ornaments, was completed in a record of sixteen years (447 to 431 BC).
Decorations
Coloring
Only three basic colors are used: white, blue and red, sometimes black too. Crepidomas, columns, and architraves are mostly white. Only details, such as grooves cut horizontally at the bottom of the Doric capital ( annuli ), or decorative elements of the Doric architraves (eg taenia and guttae ) can be painted in different colors. Frieze is clearly structured using color. In Doric flower decorations, blue triglifes alternate with red metopes, the latter often serving as a backdrop for individually painted statues. Relief, ornaments, and pedimental statues are executed with a wider range of colors and shades. Hidden or shaded elements, such as small pieces or triglyif can be painted black. Paints are mostly applied to parts that do not load, while structural parts such as columns or horizontal elements of architrave and geison are left unpainted (if made of high quality limestone or marble) or covered with white stucco.
Architectural sculpture
The Greek temple is often enhanced with figural decorations. especially decoration areas that offer space for reliefs and relief sheets; Pedimental triangles often contain a free-standing sculpture scene. In Archaic times, even architrave can be decorated with reliefs in Ionic temples, as demonstrated by earlier Apollo temples in Didyma. Here, the architrave corners give birth to the gorgon, surrounded by lions and possibly other animals. On the other hand, Ionic Minor Asia temples have no separate decoration to make room for relief decorations. The most common area for decoration reliefs remains decor, either as a typical Doric flower decoration, with carved metopes, or as a continuous decoration in the Cycladic and later in the Ionic temples of the East.
Metopes
The metopes, separate individual tableaux that usually can not contain more than three digits each, usually depicted individual scenes belonging to the wider context. It is rare for scenes to be distributed across multiple metopes; on the contrary, the general narrative context, usually combat, is made by a combination of some isolated scenes. Other thematic contexts can be described this way. For example, the metaphes in front and behind the Temple of Zeus in Olympia depict the Twelve Heracles Labor. Individual mythological scenes, such as the Europa kidnapping or a livestock raid by Dioscuri can be described so, as well as scenes from an Argonaut cruise or the Trojan War. The battle against centaurs and the Amazon, as well as the gigantomachy, all three portrayed in the Parthenon, is a recurring theme in many temples.
Friezes
All battle scenes are also common themes of Ionic friezes, eg. Gigantomachy at Hekate temple in Lagina, or Amazonomachy at the temple of Artemis in Magnesia in Maeander, both from the late 2nd century BC. Complex compositions visualize back and forth combat for viewers. Such landscape is contrasted with the more peaceful or peaceful: The assembly of gods and processions dominates the 160 m long decoration placed on the wall of the Parthenon's naos .
Pedimen
Particular attention is paid to the decor of the pedimental triangle, at least because of their size and front position. Initially, the pediment is filled with large reliefs, eg. Shortly after 600 BC at the temple of Artemis in Kerkyra, where the western pediment was taken by Medusa's gorgon and his children at the center, flanked by panther. The smaller scene is shown in the bottom corner of the pediment, e.g. Zeus with lightning, against Giant. The censer statue of the first peripteral temple in the Acropolis of Athens, from c. 570 BC, almost a freestanding statue, but still dominated by the central scene against the lion.
Again, the corners contained separate scenes, including Heracles against Triton. After the middle of the 6th century BC, the composition scheme changed: the animal scene is now placed in a corner, soon they completely disappear. The central composition is now taken over by mythological fights or by the ranks of human figures. The high point in which the Greeks hold the pedimental statues is shown by the discovery of the statues of the Archaic Temple of Apollo End in Delphi, which has received a proper burial after the destruction of the temple in 373 BC. The themes of individual pedimental scenes are increasingly dominated by myths associated with locality. Thus, the eastern pediment in Olympia illustrates the preparations for a horse-drawn race between Pelops and Oinomaos, the king of nearby Pisa myths. This is the basic myth of the sanctuary itself, shown here in the most prominent position. The same association is directly provided by the birth of Athena on the Eastern pediment of the Parthenon, or the struggle for Attica between him and Poseidon on the western pediment. The pediment of Kabeiroi's last temple in Samothrace, late in the 3rd century BC, depicting a local legend may be pure, no major interest to Greece as a whole.
Roof
The roof is crowned by acroteria , originally in the form of intricate clay plates, from the 6th century BC onwards as a fully sculpted figure placed in the corners and backs of pediments. They can describe bowls and tripods, griffins, spinxes, and especially mythical figures and gods. For example, Nike's depiction that runs crowns the temple Alcmaeonid Apollo in Delphi, and the amazon mounted forms the corner acre of the Asklepos temple in Epidauros. Pausanias (5, 10, 8) describes a bronze tripod forming a corner akroteria and a Nike statue by Paeonios forming a ridge at the Temple of Zeus in Olympia.
Columns
For the sake of completeness, the potential bearer of the sculpture should be mentioned here: columnae celetae from the Ionic temples in Ephesos and Didyma. Here at Archaic temples, the underside of the columns are emblazoned by prominent help decorations, which initially describe a row of numbers, replaced in their last Classical and Hellenic successors with mythological and combat scenes.
Functions and design
Statue of cult and cella
The function of the temple is mainly concentrated on the cella , the "residence" of the cult sculpture. Elaboration of the external aspects of the temple serves to emphasize the dignity of cella . On the contrary, cella itself is often resolved with moderation. The only light source for cella and the cult sculpture is the front door of cella '. Thus, the interior only receives limited amount of light. Exceptions are found in the Apollo temples at Bassae and Athena in Tegea, where the southern wall of cella has a door, potentially allowing more light into the interior. Specific situations apply to Cyclades temples, where the roof is usually made of marble tiles. The marble roof also covered the temples of Zeus at Olympia and Parthenon in Athens. Because marble is not completely opaque, the cells may have been impregnated with different diffuse lights. For cultural reasons, but also to use sunrise, almost all Greek temples are oriented east. Some exceptions exist, e.g. the western Artemis temples at Ephesus and at Magnesia in Maeander, or north-south oriented temples in Arcadia. Such exceptions may be related to the practice of cults. The study of the land around the temple site, is proof that the temple sites were chosen in relation to certain gods: for example, in the midst of fertile soil for the gods of agriculture Dionysos and Demeter, and rocky ground close to the hunter-gatherer god Apollo and Artemis.
Refinement
The statue of the cult is often oriented to the altar, placed axially in front of the temple. To maintain this connection, a row of frequent columns along the central axis of cella in the early temples was replaced by two separate lines toward the sides. The most central of the three alleys created are often emphasized as the main ones. The dignity of the central aisle of cella can be underscored by the use of special elements of the design. For example, the oldest known capital of Corinth is from Doric temples. The imagination of the internal hallway can be further emphasized by having the third row of columns along the back, as in the Parthenon and in the temple of Zeus in Nemea. Parthenon Access
It used to be considered that access to cella from Greek temples is limited to priests, and it is rarely and rarely visited by other visitors, except perhaps during important festivals or other special occasions. In recent decades, this picture has changed, and scholars now emphasize local access rules. Pausanias was a courteous explorer of the 2nd century who declared that the special purpose of his journey around Greece was to see heretical images, and usually managed to do so. Usually a sacrifice or a gift is required, and some temples restrict access either on certain days of the year, or by class, race, gender (both men and women are forbidden), or even stricter. Garlic eaters are prohibited in one temple, in other women except they are virgins; restrictions usually arise from local ideas of ritual purity or the perceived desires of the gods. In some places, visitors are asked to show that they speak Greek; elsewhere Dorians are not allowed in. Some temples can only be seen from the doorway. Some temples are said to have never been opened at all. But in general the Greeks, including slaves, had reasonable expectations to be allowed into cella. Once inside the cella, perhaps to pray or before a cult image, and sometimes to touch it; Cicero saw the bronze picture of Heracles with his legs largely damaged by the touch of the devotee. Famous cult images such as the Zeus Statue in Olympia serve as a significant visitor attraction.
Sometimes, the divine character of the cult image is emphasized even more by deleting it further into a separate space within cella , adyton . Especially in Magna Graecia, this tradition continues for a long time. For decades and centuries, many vows could be placed at cella , giving it a museum-like character (Pausanias 5, 17).
Opisthodomos
The back room of the temple, opisthodomos , usually serves as a storage room for a cult tool. It can also keep the temple treasure. For some time, the opisthodomus of the Athens Parthenon contained the treasury of the Delian League, so it was directly protected by the gods. Pronaos and opisthodomos are often closed from peristasis by obstacles or wooden fences.
Peristasis
Like cella, peristasis can serve the look and storage of polling, often placed between columns. In some cases, the votive offer can also be directly attached to the column, as seen for example at the Hera Temple in Olympia. The peristasis can also be used for a cult procession, or simply as a shelter from elements, a function emphasized by Vitruvius (III 3, 8f).
Sponsorship, construction and cost
Public and private sponsors
Sponsors of Greek temples typically belong to one of two groups: on the one hand the public sponsors, including the agencies and institutions that manage important shelters; on the other hand an influential and prosperous private sponsorship, especially the Hellenistic king. Financial needs are covered by income from taxes or special charges, or by the sale of raw materials such as silver. Collection of donations also occurs, especially for supra-regional asylum such as Delphi or Olympia. The Hellenistic Monarchy may emerge as a private donor in cities outside the sphere of their direct influence and sponsor public buildings, as exemplified by Antiochos IV, who ordered the rebuilding of the Olympieion in Athens. In such a case, the money comes from the private cash from the donor.
Organization
Building contracts are advertised after popular or elected assemblies have passed relevant movements. The appointed committee will select the winner among the proposed plans. After that, other committees will oversee the development process. His responsibilities include advertising and awarding individual contracts, practical oversight of construction, inspection and acceptance of completed parts, and payroll. The original ad contains all the information needed to allow the contractor to make a realistic offer to complete the task. Contracts are usually awarded to competitors who offer the most complete services for the cheapest price. In the case of public buildings, material is usually provided by public sponsors, exceptions are clarified in the contract. Contractors are usually only responsible for a certain part of the overall construction, as most small businesses. Initially, payments are made by people and days, but from the 5th century BC onwards, the payment per piece or construction phase becomes common.
Cost
The cost can be huge. For example, a surviving receipt shows that in rebuilding Artemision of Ephesos, a column costs 40,000 drachmas. Considering that a worker is paid about two drachmas, that is equivalent to almost 2 million euros (on the scale of modern western European wages). Since the total number of columns required for the design is 120, even this aspect of the building will lead to costs that are on par with major current projects (around 360 million euros).
Temple of different architectural orders
One of the criteria in which Greek temples are classified is the Classical order chosen as their basic aesthetic principle. This option, which is rarely completely free, but usually determined by local traditions and customs, will lead to very different design rules. According to the three main commands, fundamental differences can be made between Doric, Ionic and Corinthian Temple.
Doric Temple
The modern image of Greek temple architecture is strongly influenced by various well-preserved Doric temples. Particularly the ruins of southern Italy and Sicily can be accessed by western tourists early enough in the development of Classical studies, eg temples in Paestum, Akragas or Segesta, but Hephaisteion and Parthenon of Athena also affect the scholarship architecture and the Neoclassic from the starting point and beyond.
Beginning
The beginnings of Greek temple construction in the Doric order can be traced back to the beginning of the 7th century BC. With the transition to the stone architecture of about 600 BC, the order was fully developed; since then, only the details have been altered, developed and refined, largely in the context of solving the challenges posed by monumental temple design and construction.
First monumental temple
Regardless of the initial form, sometimes still with apsidal back and hipped roof, the first 100-foot (30 m) peripteral temple (30 m) first occurs immediately, before 600 BC. An example is Temple C in Thermos, c. 625 BC, 100-foot (30 m) long hekatompedos, surrounded by peristasis of 5 ÃÆ'â € "15 columns, divided into two aisles by the middle row of columns. It is entirely Doric entablature indicated by painted clay plaque, possibly an early example of metopes, and clay trigly. It seems to be the case that all the temples erected within the sphere of Corinth and Argos influence in the 7th century BC were Doric peripteroi . The earliest rock columns do not feature the simple uniformity of Archaic's high and final specimens, but rather reflect the slimness of their wooden predecessors. Already around 600 BC, visibility requests from all sides are applied to the Doric temple, leading to mirroring from the frontal pronaos by opisthodomos behind. This initial request continues to affect Doric temples especially in the homeland of Greece. Both Ionic temples and Doric specimens in Magna Graecia follow this principle. The increased monumentalization of stone buildings, and the transfer of wooden roof construction to the level of geison removes a fixed relationship between naos and peristasis naos "float" within peristasis .
Temple built of stone
The Heraion at Olympia (about 600 BC)
The Heraion of Olympia ( c) 600 BC) exemplifies the transition from wood to stone construction. The building, originally built entirely of wood and mudbrick, has wooden columns that are gradually replaced with stones over time. Like the Doric column museum and Doric's capital, it contains examples of all the chronological phases, up to the Roman period. One of the columns in opisthodomos remained timber at least until the 2nd century, when Pausanias described it. These 6 by 16 temple columns are already calling for a solution to the Doric angular conflict. It is achieved through the reduction of inter-joint angles called angular contractions. The Heraion is most advanced in terms of the relationship between nios and peristasion, since it uses a solution that becomes a canonical decade later, linear axis runs along the external face of the outer wall naos and through the center axis of the corresponding column. The difference between the wider intercolumnia on the narrow and narrow side on the long side is also an influential feature, such as the position of columns inside the cella , in accordance with the outside, the features are not repeated until the construction of the temple in Bassae 150 years then.
Temple of Artemis, Kerkyra (early 6th century BC)
The oldest fully constructed Doric Temple is represented by the 6th century BC Artemis Temple in Kerkyra (modern Corfu). All parts of this building are large and heavy, the column reaches a height of almost five times its basic diameter and is very close to the intercolumnation of a single column width. Each member of his Doric command is very different from the canon then, though all the important Doric features are present. The basic plan of 8 of the 17 columns, probably pseudoperipteral, is unusual.
Archaic Olympieion, Athens
Among the Doric temple, the Peisistratid Olympieion in Athens has a special position. Although the building is never finished, the architect seems to be trying to adapt Ionic dipteros . The drum columns built into the later foundations indicate that it was originally planned as a Doric temple. Nonetheless, his basic plan follows the Ionic examples from Samos so close that it would be difficult to reconcile such a solution with Doric triglyph decorations. After the expulsion of Hippias in 510 BC, work on this structure was stopped: the Athenian Democrats had no desire to continue the tyranny agroforestation monument.
Classic period: canonization
Apart from these exceptions and some examples at the more experimental poles of Greater Greece, the type of Classic Doric temple remains peripteros . . His perfection is a priority of artistic endeavor throughout the Classical period.
Temple of Zeus, Olympia (460 BC)
The canonical solution was discovered immediately by the Libon architect of Elis, who founded the Temple of Zeus in Olympia around 460 BC. With 6 ÃÆ'â € "13 columns or 5 ÃÆ'â €" 12 intercolumniations, the temple is designed completely rationally. The column pillar (wick to the axis) was measured 16 feet (4.9 m), an 8-foot (2.4 m) metallic trigger, a mutulus plus a nearby space ( via >) 4 feet (1.2 m), the width of the tile from the marble roof is 2 feet (0.61 m). The columns are strong, with just a little entasis ; echinus from the capital is almost linear at 45 °. All superstructures are affected by curvature. The cella measures exactly 3 ÃÆ'â € "9 column spacing (axis to axis), the external wall face is parallel to the adjacent column axis.
Canonical Other canonical classics
Classical Proportions, 6 ÃÆ'â € "13 columns, taken by many temples, eg. Temple of Apollo in Delos ( c) 470 BC ), Temple of Hephaistos in Athens and Poseidon temple at Tanjung Sounion. Slight variations, with 6 ÃÆ'â € "12 columns or 5 ÃÆ'â €" 11 intercolumniations are common.
Parthenon (450 BC)
Parthenon retains the same proportion on a larger scale of 8 ÃÆ'â € "17 columns, but follows the same principle. Apart from the eight columns in front of it, this temple is pure peripteros , its external cella walls are parallel to the 2nd and 7th column axes. In other respects, the Parthenon is distinguished as an extraordinary example among the Greek masses peripteroi by many specific aesthetic solutions in detail. For example, antae from pronaos
and opisthodomos are shortened to form a simple pillar. Instead of longer antae , there is prostyle poles inside the peristasis on the front and back, reflecting the Ionic habit. The execution of naos , with the west space of four columns, is also remarkable. Archaic Parthenon's predecessor already contained such a space. All measurements in Parthenon are determined by the proportion of 4: 9. This sets the column width to the column spacing, width to stylobate length, and from naos without antae . The width of the temple to the height up to geison is determined by the inverse proportion of 9: 4, the same proportion of squares, 81:16, determines the length of the temple to the height. All these mathematical rigidities are relaxed and loosened by the above-mentioned optical refinements, which affect the entire building, from layer to layer, and element to element. 92 sculpted metopes decorate the darkened rooms: centauromachy, amazonomachy, and gigantomachy are the themes. The external wall of naos is crowned with figural decoration that surrounds the whole cella and describes the Panathenaic procession as well as the Assembly of the Gods. Large format figures adorn the pediments on the narrow side. The conjunction of these rigorous principles and intricate refinements made the Parthenon a Paradigmatic Classical temple. The Hephaistos Temple in Athens, established shortly after the Parthenon, used the same aesthetic and proportional principles, without being as close to 4: 9 proportions.
Classic and Hell Ends: change proportions
In the 4th century BC, several Doric temples were erected with 6 ÃÆ'â € "15 or 6 ÃÆ'â €" 14 columns, probably referring to the local Archaic predecessor, eg. The Temple of Zeus at Nemea and Athena in Tegea. Generally, the Doric temple follows a tendency to become lighter in their superstructure. The columns become narrower, the intercolumniations wider. This represents a constantly evolving adaptation of the proportions and weight of Ionic temples, which is reflected by the progressive tendency among the Ionic temples becoming somewhat heavier. In light of this reciprocal effect it is not surprising that at the end of the 4th century BC the temple of Zeus in Nemea, the front is emphasized by pronaos two deep intercolumniations, while opisthodomos is suppressed. Frontality is a key feature of Ionic temples. The emphasis on pronaos has occurred at the slightly older Athenian temple in Tegea, but there it is repeated in opisthodomos . Both temples continue the trend toward the richer interiors, in both cases with full or full columns of the Corinthian order.
The increasing number of columns along the long side, clearly visible in the Ionic temples, is reflected in the Doric construction. A small temple in KournÃÆ'³ has a peristasis of only 6 Ã- 7 columns, a stylobate of only 8 ÃÆ'â € "10 m and angles are executed as pilasters toward the front. The monumental Doric temple pericasis is only hinted here; function as a simple canopy for the temple of the cult statue is obvious.
Doric Temple at Magna Graecia
Sicily and Southern Italy rarely participate in this development. Here, most of the temple construction took place during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Later, the Western Greeks showed a clear tendency to develop unusual architectural solutions, more or less unthinkable in their colony polar mothers. For example, there are two examples of temples with unbalanced column numbers on the front, the Temple of Hera I in Paestum and the Temple of Apollo A in Metapontum. Both temples have nine columns in front of it.
The technical possibilities of the western Greeks, which have developed beyond the people of the homeland, allow for many aberrations. For example, innovations on the construction of entablature developed in the west allow for a wider range of spaces than ever before, leading to some very deep and naoi very deep peristaseis. The pericasis often has a depth of two column spacing, for example in the Temple of Hera I, Paestum, and temples C, F and G in Selinus, grouping them as pseudodipteroi. The opisthodomos plays only an additional role, but sometimes happens, eg. at the Poseidon temple in Paestum. Much more often, temples include a separate room on the back end of cella, a normally forbidden entrance, which is adyton . In some cases,
Its greatest structure is the Olympieion Akragas, 8 ÃÆ' 17 columns peripteros, but in many ways it is a "un-Greek" structure, furnished with details such as the figural (Telamon), and peristasis ( partly covered by walls. With an external dimension of 56 ÃÆ'â € "113 m, it is the largest Doric building ever completed. If the colonies show great independence and a desire to experiment in basic things, they do even more in detail. For example, the lower surface of Doric geisa can be decorated with coffers instead of mutuli .
Despite the strong tendency to emphasize ahead, for example through the addition of a ramp or ladder with up to eight steps (at Temple C in Selinus), or pronaos the depth of 3.5 spacing columns (the Apollo temple in Syracuse) has become a central principle design, this is relativised by expansion of the column spacing on the long side, for example the Temple of Hera I in Paestum. Only in the colony can the Doric angle conflict be ignored. If the Southern Italian architect tries to solve it, they use a variety of solutions: expand the angle of metopes or triglif, variations of columns or metadows. In some cases, different solutions are used on the broad and narrow side of the same building.
Ionic temple
Origins
For the earliest period, before the 6th century BC, the term Ionic temple can, at best, point to a temple in an Ionian settlement. No Ionic oronic architectural fragments have been found since now. Nevertheless, some early temples in the area have already demonstrated a rational system that characterizes the later Ionic system, for example Heraion II of Samos. Thus, even at the starting point, the axis of the cella wall corresponds to the column axis, whereas in Dorik's architecture, the face of the external wall does so. The early temples also showed no concern for the Doric features typical of the visions of all sides, they regularly lacked opisthodomos ; peripteros was only widespread in the area in the 4th century BC. Instead, from the starting point, the Ionic temples press ahead using a double portico. Extends peristaseis to the deciding element. At the same time, Ionic temples are characterized by their tendency to use varied and richly ornate surfaces, as well as the widespread use of bright-color contrast.
Monumental Ionic temple
The Heraion of Samos
As soon as the Ionic ions became known in the temple architecture, it increased to a monumental size. The temple at Heraion of Samos, founded by Rhoikos around 560 BC, is the first known dipteros , with outside dimensions 52 ÃÆ'â € "105 m. A double portico of 8 ÃÆ'â € "21 columns encompassing naos , the back even has ten columns. The front uses different spacing columns, with larger center openings. Proportionately with the bottom diameter, the columns reach three times the height of the Doric partners. 40 fluting enriches the complex surface structure of the column shaft. The base of the Samian column is adorned with a horizontal line order, but regardless of this game they weigh 1,500 kg a piece. The capital of this structure may still be entirely of wood, as is entablature. The Ionic volumes of capital survive from the outer peristasis of the later redevelopment by Polycrates. Column in peristasis has leaf decoration and no sound.
Cycladic Ionic
In the Cyclades, there are early temples made entirely of marble. The hard capital has not been found associated with this, but their marble entablatures belong to the ionic sequence.
Artemision of Ephesos
Roughly beginning with the erection of the older Artemision of Ephesus around 550 BC the number of archaeological remnants of Ionic temples increases. Artemision was planned as dipteros , its architect Theodoros has become one of the builders of Samian Heraion. With a substructure of 55 ÃÆ'â € "115 m, Artemision outperformed all precedents. Its cella is executed as peristyle unroofed internal page, called sekos . The building was made entirely of marble. The temple is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, which can be justified, given the effort involved in its construction.
The columns stand on an ephesian base, 36 of which are adorned with human-sized human friezes at the bottom of the axis, called the columnae caelatae . Columns have between 40 and 48 strains, some of which are cut to alternate between wider and narrower strains. Architraves of Greece's oldest marble architecture, found in Artemision, also stretches the widest distance ever achieved in pure stone. The middle architrave block is 8.74 m long and weighs 24 metric tons; it should be lifted to its final position, 20 m above the ground, with a pulleys system. Like its precedents, the temples use differentiated column widths in front, and have a higher number of columns on the back. According to ancient sources, Kroisos is one of the sponsors. An inscription referring to the sponsor is indeed found in one of the columns. The temple was burned by Herostratos in 356 BC and immediately replaced. For replacement, crepidoma of ten or more established steps. The older Ionic temples do not usually have a clearly visible substructure. This emphasized basis must be balanced into an elevated entablature, which produces not only visual contrast, but also the main weight of the slender columns.
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