Architecture is the process and product of planning, design, and construction of buildings or other structures. Architectural works, in the form of building materials, are often regarded as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilization is often identified with the architectural achievements of those who are still alive.
Video Architecture
Definition and etymology
Architecture (Latin architectura , from the Greek ????????? arkhitekton "architect", from ???? - "head" and ???? "builder") is the process and product of planning, design, and construction of buildings and other physical structures.
Architecture can mean:
- General terms for describing buildings and other physical structures.
- Art and science design buildings and (some) non-building structures.
- Design style and method of building construction and other physical structure.
- Shape or unified or coherent structure.
- Knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.
- Architectural design activities, from macro level (urban design, landscape architecture) to micro level (details of construction and furniture). The practice of architects, where architecture means offering or providing professional services with respect to the design and construction of buildings, or built environments.
Maps Architecture
Architectural Theory
Historical magazine
The earliest surviving papers on architectural matters are De architectura , by Roman architect Vitruvius at the beginning of the 1st century. According to Vitruvius, a good building must fulfill the three principles of firmitas, utility, venustas, commonly known as original translations - assertiveness, commodity and joy . An equivalent in modern English is:
- Durability - a building must stand firm and stay in good condition.
- Utilities - this should match the intended use.
- Beauty - it should be aesthetically pleasing.
According Vitruvius, architects must try to meet these three attributes as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who outlined Vitruvius's ideas in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, sees beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornaments also play a role. For Alberti, the rule of proportion is that which governs the ideal human figure, the meaning of Gold.
Therefore, the most important aspect of beauty is the inherent part of an object, not something superficially applied, and based on recognizable universal truths. The idea of ​​style in art was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari: in the 18th century, his Life of the Greatest Painters, Sculptors and Architects has been translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English..
In the early nineteenth century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as suggested by the title, in contrast to the modern industrial world, which he underestimated, with the image of an ideal medieval neo-world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believes, is the only "true form of Christian architecture."
The 19th-century British art critic John Ruskin, in his book Seven Lamps of Architecture, published in 1849, is much more narrow in his view of what constitutes architecture. Architecture is "the art that so determines and decorates buildings raised by humans... that their sights" contribute "to their mental health, strength, and pleasure".
For Ruskin, the aesthetic is very important. His work goes on to state that a building is not really an architectural masterpiece except that in some way "decorate". For Ruskin, well-constructed, proportional, and functional buildings require a course of strings or expulsion, at least.
On the distinction between architectural ideals and just construction , the famous 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You use stone, wood, and concrete, and with materials here you are building a house and a palace: it's a construction Ingenuity is working, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do well I'm happy and I say: It's beautiful It's Architecture ".
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, contemporary character Le Corbusier, says, "Architecture begins when you carefully unite the two bricks.
The modern concept
The famous 19th-century skyscraper architect Louis Sullivan promotes the main teaching for architectural design: "Form follows function".
While the idea that structural and aesthetic considerations must be entirely subservient to functionality filled with popularity and skepticism, it has the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in lieu of Vitruvius's "utility". "Function" comes to be seen as encompassing all the criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practically but also aesthetically, psychologically and culturally.
Nunzia Rondanini states, "Through the architecture of its aesthetic dimension it goes beyond the same functional aspects as other human sciences.In its own way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presupposing that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. '
To limit the meaning of formalism (architecture) to art to art rather than just reactionary; it can also be a goalless search for perfection or originality that lowers form into mere tools ".
Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.
At the end of the 20th century, new concepts added to the concepts included in the compass both structure and function, consideration of sustainability, then sustainable architecture. To satisfy contemporary ethos, a building must be built in an environmentally sound manner in terms of production of its materials, its impact on the natural environment and its built environment and the demands it makes on unsustainable resources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.
Architectural philosophy
Architectural Philosophy is a branch of art philosophy, dealing with aesthetic value of architecture, semantics and relationships with cultural development.
Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Robert Venturi and many other philosophers and theorists, distinguish the architecture ('technique') of the building ('demiorgos'), connect the first with mental characteristics, and the last to the divine or natural.
The Wittgenstein House is considered one of the most important examples of the interaction between philosophy and architecture. Built by renowned Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, this house has been the subject of extensive research on the relationship between features of style, Wittgenstein's personality, and his philosophy.
History
Origins and vernacular architecture
The first building develops from the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and the means (available building materials and skill attendant). As human culture develops and knowledge begins to be formalized through traditions and oral practices, buildings become crafted, and "architecture" is the name given to the most formalized and respected version of the craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success is the product of the trial and error process, with less experimentation and more replication as the outcome of the process proves to be more satisfying. The so-called vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up the bulk of the built-in world that people experience every day. Early human settlements are mostly rural. As the surplus in economic production begins to develop so urbanization thus creates an urban area that grows and develops very rapidly in some cases, such as the ÃÆ'â € Å"al at HÃÆ'¶yÃÆ'¼k in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro from the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.
Ancient architecture
In many ancient civilizations, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflect constant involvement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures use monumentalities in architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.
Architecture and urbanism Classical civilizations such as Greek and Roman evolved from civic rather than religious or empirical ideals and new types of buildings emerged. "Style" architecture developed in the form of Classic orders. Roman architecture was influenced by Greek architecture because they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices.
Text on architecture has been written since ancient times. These texts provide general advice and specific prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century Roman architect SMV Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonical architecture are religious.
Asian Architecture
The earliest Asian writings on architecture include Kao Gong Ji from China from the 7th - 5th century BC; Shilpa Shastra from ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra from Sri Lanka.
The architecture of various parts of Asia develops along different lines of Europe; The Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each have different characteristics. The Buddha's architecture, in particular, shows the great regional diversity. The architecture of a Hindu temple, developed around the 3rd century BC, is governed by concepts established in Shastra, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion leads to architectural forms designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
Islamic Architecture
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the Middle East and the ancient Byzantium, but also developed features that fit the religious and social needs of society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, and the Indian sub-continent.
Medieval
In Europe during the period of the Middle Ages, unions were formed by craftsmen to organize their trade and written contracts had survived, especially in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The architect's role is usually one with the master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes depicted in contemporary documents.
The main architectural business is the building of the monastery and cathedral. From about 900 CE onwards, the movement of both scholars and traders brought architectural knowledge throughout Europe, resulting in pan-European Romanesque and Gothic styles.
Renaissance and architects
In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a resurgence of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed a greater emphasis on the role of individuals in society than ever before during the Middle Ages. Buildings are thought to have originated from certain architects - Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio - and individual cults have begun. There is still no line between artists, architects and engineers, or any of the related calls, and the title is often one of the regional preferences.
The revival of the classical style in architecture is accompanied by the development of science and techniques that affect the proportions and structures of buildings. At this stage, it is still possible for an artist to design a bridge because the level of structural calculation involved is within the scope of the generalist.
Early modern and industrial age
With the advent of knowledge in the scientific field and the emergence of new materials and technologies, architecture and engineering began to separate, and architects began to concentrate on aesthetics and humanist aspects, often sacrificing the technical aspects of building design. There is also the emergence of "gentleman architects" that usually deal with wealthy clients and concentrated primarily on visual qualities typically derived from historical prototypes, symbolized by many of the country houses in England that were created in Neo Gothic or Scottish styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at the ÃÆ'â € cole des Beaux-Arts in France, gives much emphasis on the production of beautiful images and little context and eligibility.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution opened the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics become a criterion for the middle class as decorated products, once in the province of expensive expertise, becomes cheaper under machine production.
The vernacular architecture becomes increasingly ornamental. Home builders can use the current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.
modernism
Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with an emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration spawned many new lines of thought that serve as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The emergence of the industrial design profession is usually placed here. Following these instructions, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural limits established earlier throughout history, seeing the creation of a building as the synthesis of the ultimate arts, crafts, and technologies.
When modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic grounds. Immediately after World War I, the pioneers of modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style that corresponded to the new postwar social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle class and the working class. They reject the architectural practice of perfection of historical historical styles that serve the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The Modernist architect's approach is to reduce buildings to pure form, eliminating historical references and ornaments that support functionalist details. Buildings display their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative shapes. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright develop an organic architecture, in which the shape is determined by the environment and its purpose, with the aim of promoting harmony between human habitations and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer work to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric shapes, celebrating new ways and methods made possible by Industrial Revolution, including steel frame construction, which gave birth to high superstructure. The development of the Fazlur Rahman Khan tube structure is a technological breakthrough in building a higher one. In medieval times, Modernism has turned into an International Style, an aesthetics symbolizing in many ways by the New York World Trade Center Twin Tower designed by Minoru Yamasaki.
Postmodernism
Many architects have rejected modernism, because they regard it as having no decorative historical style. When the first modernist generation began to die after World War II, the second generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to extend the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, a building with façade expressive statues made of unfinished concrete.. But the newer, younger post-war generation criticized modernism and Brutalism for being too harsh, standardized, monotonous, and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historic buildings over time and in different places and cultures.
One reaction to the cold aesthetics of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphorical architecture, which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic architecture, both using nature as the main source of inspiration and design. Although regarded by some as only the aspect of postmodernism, others consider it a school in itself and the subsequent development of expressionist architecture.
Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects such as Charles Moore in the United States, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti, Michele Valori, Bruno Zevi in ​​Italy, which collectively popularized an interest in new contemporary architecture aimed at extending human experience using historic buildings as models and precedents. Postmodernism produces a style that combines contemporary building technology and inexpensive materials, with the aesthetics of the older modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular regional or vernacular regional styles. Robert Venturi famously defines the postmodern architecture as a "warehouse decoration" (ordinary building functionally designed inside and decorated outside), and upholds it with a modernist and brutal "duck" (a building with a non-expressive tectonic form).
Architecture today
Since the 1980s, as building complexity began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technology), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specialization for each project type, technology expertise or project delivery method. In addition, there is increased separation of 'design' architects from 'project' architects who ensure that the project meets the required standards and deals with issues of responsibility. The preparation process for large building designs has become increasingly complex, and requires early studies on issues such as endurance, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. The big structure can no longer be a one person design but it should be the work of many people. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; but must consider the daily human needs and use technology to create an environment, with a design process informed by behavioral, environmental, and social science studies.
Environmental sustainability has become a major issue, with profound effects on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support building financing, have been trained to encourage the facilitation of eco-friendly designs, rather than solutions based on direct costs. Key examples of this can be found in the design of passive solar buildings, greener roofing designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to energy use structures. This major change in architecture has also transformed the architecture school to focus more on the environment. There is acceleration in the number of buildings that strive to meet the principles of green building green design. The sustainable practices that form the core of vernacular architecture increasingly inspire contemporary environmental and social sustainable techniques. The LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) ranking system of the United States Green Building Council has been instrumental in this regard.
At the same time, the New Urbanism movement, the metaphorical architecture and the New Classical Architecture have recently promoted a sustainable approach to construction that respects and fosters intelligent growth, architectural tradition and classical design. This is in contrast to modernist and uniformed global architecture, as well as relying on suburban housing housing and suburban sprawl. The glass curtain wall, which is the hallmark of ultra-modern urban life in many countries even emerged in developing countries such as Nigeria where international styles have been represented since the mid-20th century mainly due to the tendency of foreign-trained architects.
Other architectural types
Business architecture
Business architecture is defined as "a corporate blueprint that provides a general understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic goals and tactical demands." The person who develops and maintains the business architecture is known as the business architect.
Business architecture is the bridge between the company's business model and corporate strategy on the one hand, and the business functions of the company on the other.
Cognitive architecture
Cognitive architecture can refer to theories about the structure of the human mind. One of the main goals of cognitive architecture is to summarize the results of cognitive psychology in a comprehensive computer model. However, the result should be in a formalized form so far can be the basis of computer programs. The formalized model can be used to further refine a comprehensive cognition theory, and more immediately, as a model that can be used commercially. Successful cognitive architecture includes ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought, ACT) and SOAR.
The Institute of Creative Technologies defines cognitive architecture as: "the hypothesis of a fixed structure that provides the mind, whether in a natural or artificial system, and how they work together - in conjunction with the knowledge and skills embodied in architecture - to produce intelligent behavior in a diverse environment complex. "
Computer Architecture
In computer engineering, "computer architecture" is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some architectural definitions define it as describing the capabilities and model of computer programming but not a specific implementation. In other definitions computer architecture involves the design of instruction set architecture, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation.
Enterprise architecture
The enterprise architecture ( EA ) is "well-defined practice for enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a holistic approach at all times, for successful development and execution of strategy." Enterprise architecture applies principles and practices architecture to guide organizations through the business, information, processes, and technological changes necessary to implement their strategies.These practices take advantage of various aspects of a company to identify, motivate, and achieve these changes. "
The company's architectural practitioner, the corporate architect, is responsible for performing structured analysis and business processes and is often called upon to draw conclusions from the information gathered to address the company's architectural goals: effectiveness, efficiency, agility, and endurance.
Interior Architecture
Interior architecture is the design of space that has been created by structural boundaries and human interaction within these boundaries. It could also be the initial design and plan to use, then redesign to accommodate changed goals, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell. The latter often becomes part of the practice of sustainable architecture, preserving resources through "recycling" structures with adaptive redesign. Generally referred to as the art of environmental design space, form and practice, interior architecture is the process by which the interior of the building is designed, related to all aspects of the use of human structural space. Simply put, Interior Architecture is interior design in terms of architecture.
Landscape architecture
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, well-known buildings, and structures to achieve environmental, social, or aesthetic results. This involves a systematic investigation of the social, ecological, and land conditions and processes existing in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcomes. The scope of the profession includes landscape design; site planning; stormwater management; environmental restoration; park and recreational planning; management of visual resources; planning and provision of green infrastructure; and planning and design of residential landscape masters and private residences; all at various scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in a landscape architecture profession is called a landscape architect.
Naval architecture, also known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline that deals with engineering design processes, shipbuilding, maintenance, and ship operations and marine structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation and calculation during all stages of marine life. Initial design of the vessel, detailed design, construction, piloting, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-cleaning are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for modified vessels (by means of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). The naval architecture also involves the formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules as well as ship design approval and certification to comply with legal and non-statutory requirements.
Network architecture
Network architecture is the design of communication networks. This is the framework for the specification of the physical components of networks and organizations and their functional configurations, operational principles and procedures, and the format of the data used. In telecommunications, the network architecture specification may also include a detailed description of the products and services delivered through the communication network, as well as the detailed level and billing structure in which the service is compensated.
Software architecture
Software architecture refers to the basic structure of software systems, the discipline creates such structures, and the documentation of these structures. This structure is necessary for reasons about the software system. Each structure consists of software elements, the relationships between them, and the properties of both elements and relationships, along with the reason for the introduction and configuration of each element. architecture of the software system is a metaphor, analogous to the architecture of the building.
Software architecture is about making fundamental structural choices that are expensive to change after being implemented. Choice of software architecture, also called architectural decisions, includes specific structural options of possibilities in software design. For example, a system that controls the shuttle launch vehicle has requirements to be very fast and very reliable. Therefore, the right real-time computing language must be selected. In addition, to meet the need for reliability, options can be made to have copies of redundant and independently produced programs, and to run these copies on independent hardware while cross-examination results.
Documenting software architectures facilitates communication among stakeholders, captures architectural design decisions, and enables reuse of inter-project design components.
System architecture
System architecture is a conceptual model that defines the structure, behavior, and more views of a system. Architectural descriptions are formal descriptions and system representations, organized in a way that supports reasoning about the structure and behavior of the system.
A system architecture can consist of system components that will work together to implement the whole system. There is an attempt to formalize the language to describe the system architecture, collectively these are called architectural description languages ​​(ADLs).
Urban design
Urban design is the process of designing and forming the physical features of cities, towns and villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings, urban design relates to larger scales of building, street and public space groups, entire neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the aim of making urban functional, attractive, and sustainable.
Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that uses elements of many built-in professions, including landscape architecture, urban planning, architecture, civil engineering, and urban engineering. It is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban design. In more recent times, different sub-sectors of urban design have emerged such as strategic urban design, urbanism landscape, urban design that is sensitive to water, and sustainable urbanism.
See also
- Architectural design competitions
- Architectural drawing
- Enterprise architecture
- Architectural styles
- Architectural technology
- Architectural theory
- Architectural gift
- Building materials
- Contemporary architecture
- Dravidian Architecture
- Guerilla architecture
- List of architectures
- List of human shapes
- Math and architecture
- Metaphor Architecture
- Organic architecture
- Architectural outline
- Architectural sociology
- Ongoing architecture
- Zoomorphic Architecture
Note
References
External links
- The World Architecture Community
- Architecture.com, published by the Royal Institute of British Architects
- The world's architectural and museum center, a list of links from UIA
- Architect Architecture
- Arch2O Architecture
- The American Institute of Architects
- Glossary of Architecture (with dictionary definition)
- City and Building Database - A collection of building and city digital drawings taken from time to time and worldwide from the University of Washington Library
- "Architecture and Power", BBC Radio 4's discussion with Adrian Tinniswood, Gillian Darley, and Gavin Stamp ( In Our Time , October 31, 2002)
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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