Democracy

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Democracy (Greek: ????????? d? mokratÃÆ'a , literally" rules by people "), in modern usage, is a system of government in which citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives of themselves to form government bodies , such as the legislature. Democracy is sometimes referred to as the "majority rule". Democracy is a conflict-processing system where results depend on what the participants do, but there is no single power that controls what happens and results.

The uncertainty of the outcome is inherent in democracy, which keeps all the forces struggling repeatedly to realize their interests, to transfer power from a group of people to a set of rules. Western democracies, different from those in pre-modern societies, are generally thought to originate from city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and levels of rights to free male populations are observed before the form disappears in the West at the beginning of the end of ancient times. The English word comes from the 16th century, from the older Latin and Central Latin.

According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: the political system to elect and replace the government through free and fair elections; active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and social life; the protection of the human rights of all citizens; rule of law, where laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.

This term emerged in the 5th century BC to denote the political system which later existed in the Greek city states, especially Athens, which means "people's government", in contrast to the aristocracy (Ancient Greek texts language "> ??????????? , aristokrata ), which means "elite rule". While theoretically this definition is contradictory, in practice the distinction has blurred historically. The political system of Classical Athens, for example, provides democratic citizenship to liberate men and remove slaves and women from political participation. In almost all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consists of an elite class, until the right of full ownership is won to all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the nineteenth and twentieth-century voting movement.

Democracy goes against the form of government in which power is held by the individual, as in absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in the oligarchy. However, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments combine elements of democracy, oligarchy and monarchy. Karl Popper defines democracy as different from dictatorship or tyranny, thereby focusing on the opportunities for people to control their leaders and get rid of them without the need for revolution.

Video Democracy

Characteristics

There is no consensus on how to define democracy, but equality of law, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all citizens who meet the same requirements before the law and have equal access to the legislative process. For example, in representative democracies, every vote has the same weight, no unreasonable restrictions that can apply to anyone who wants to become a representative, and the freedom of a qualified citizen is guaranteed with legitimized rights and freedoms normally protected by constitution. Other uses of "democracy" include direct democracy.

One theory states that democracy requires three basic principles: upward control (sovereignty at the lowest level of authority), political equality, and social norms in which individuals and institutions consider only acceptable actions that reflect the first two principles of control to top and political equality.

The term "democracy" is sometimes used as an abbreviation for liberal democracy, which is a representative variant of democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials to correct complaints; legal proceedings; civil liberties; human rights; and elements of civil society outside the government. Roger Scruton argues that democracy alone can not provide personal and political freedom unless civil society institutions are also present.

In some countries, especially in Britain originating from the Westminster system, the dominant principle is parliamentary sovereignty, while maintaining judicial independence. In the United States, the separation of powers is often referred to as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Indian Constitution which includes a review. Although the term "democracy" is usually used in the context of a political state, its principles also apply to private organizations.

The majority rule is often listed as a feature of democracy. Therefore, democracy makes it possible for political minorities to be oppressed by the "majority tyranny" without legal protection of individual or group rights. An important part of an "ideal" representative democracy is a substantive and procedural competitive "just," that is, fair and equal. In some countries, the freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, press freedom, and internet democracy are important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests.

It has also been suggested that the basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the lives of their communities. With an emphasis on the understanding of social contracts and the collective will of all voters, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have equal votes in lawmaking.

While representative democracy is sometimes likened to a republican form of government, the classical term "republic" has included democracy and aristocracy. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom.

Maps Democracy

History

The ancient origins

The term "democracy" first appeared in ancient Greek political thought and philosophy in the city-state of Athens during the classical antiquity. The word comes from demos , "ordinary people" and kratos , strength. Led by Cleisthenes, the Athenians established what was generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BC. Cleisthenes is called the "father of Athens democracy."

Athens democracy takes the form of direct democracy, and it has two distinctive features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill some of the existing administrative and judicial offices of the government, and the legislative assembly of all Athenians. All eligible citizens are allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which governs the laws of the city state. However, the citizenship of Athena excluded women, slaves, strangers (????????? mÃÆ' Â © toikoi ), non-landowners, and men under 20 years old. The exclusion of most populations from citizen bodies is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In much of ancient times, the benefits of citizenship were related to the obligation to combat the war campaign.

Athens democracy is not only directly in the sense that decisions are made by the assembled people, but also most directly in the sense that people through assemblies, boules and courts of law control all political processes and most citizens engaging constantly in the public business. Although individual rights are not guaranteed by the constitution of Athena in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for "rights"), the Athenians enjoyed their freedom not against the government but by living in a city that was not subject to other forces and with no submission on the rules of others.

The voting range appeared in Sparta as early as 700 BC. Apella is a collection of people, held monthly, where every male citizen of at least 30 years can participate. At Apella, the Spartan selects the leader and votes with a range of voices and shouts. Aristotle calls this "childish", compared to the stone voting used by the Athenians. Sparta adopted it for its simplicity, and prevented the dominant pick, buy, or cheat in early democratic elections.

Although the Roman Republic contributes significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a small proportion of the Romans are citizens with a vote in elections for representation. The voice of powerful people is given more weight through the system of conspiracy, so the highest officials, including members of the Senate, come from several rich families and nobles. In addition, the Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have the Republic as a nation-state, although it lacked much democracy. The Romans discovered the classical concept and many works of ancient Greece preserved. Moreover, the Roman model of government inspired many political thinkers over the centuries, and modern representative democracy now imitates more Romans than Greek models because it is a country in which the supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives , and who has a leader elected or nominated. Other cultures, such as the American Iroquois State between about 1450 and 1600 AD also developed a form of democratic society before they came into contact with Europeans. This suggests that forms of democracy may have been found in other societies around the world.

Medieval

During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, though often involving only a small proportion of the population. These include:

• Frosting, Gulating, Eidsivating and Borgarting in Norway,
• Althing in Iceland,
• the LÃÆ'¸gting in the Faeroe Islands,
• Scandinavian Goods,
• Uthman's election in Rashidun Khilafah,
• The Chola empire in South India in Tamil Nadu state in Subbenua India has a voting system in 920 A., about 1100 years ago,
• Carantania, the old Slavic/Slovenian empire, the inauguration of Ducal from the 7th to 15th centuries,
• the caste election of Gopala in the Bengal region of the Indian Subcontinent,
• Hoftag Holy Roman Empire and Imperial Diet (mostly Nobles and Clergy),
• Frisia in the 10-15th centuries (Weight based on land ownership)
• The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of the population),
• some medieval Italian city states such as Venice, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, Lucca, Amalfi, Siena, and San Marino
• Cortes of LeÃÆ'³n,
• the tuatha system in Ireland's early Middle Ages,
• the Veche at Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia,
• State in Tirol and Switzerland,
• the autonomous city of Sakai merchant in the 16th century in Japan,
• The Volta-Nigeric Society is like Igbo.
• the Mekhk-Khel system of the Nakhs in the North Caucasus, where the representatives of the Elder Council for each bird (clan) were popularly selected by the members of the teip.
• The 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh ji (Nanak X) established the world's first democratic republic of Sikhism that ended the aristocracy on the first day of Vasakh 1699 and Gurbani as the only constitution of the Sikh republic in the Indian subcontinent.

Most areas of medieval Europe were ruled by feudal priests or feudal lords.

The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into a ruling clan (lineage) represented in a large assembly called Gbara . However, the charter makes Mali more akin to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic.

The British parliament is rooted in the limitation of the powers of kings written into Magna Carta (1215), which explicitly protects certain rights of the King's people and implicitly endorses what became British letters habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against imprisonment breaking the law. with the right to appeal. The first national representative assembly in Britain was Parliament Simon de Montfort in 1265. The emergence of a petition is some of the earliest evidence of parliament used as a forum to address common complaints of ordinary people. However, the power to summon parliament remains at the pleasure of the king.

Modern era

Early modern period

In the 17th century England, there was a renewed interest in Magna Carta. The British Parliament passed the Petition of Rights in 1628 which established certain freedoms for the subjects. The British Civil War (1642-1651) took place between the oligarchic but elected King and Parliament, where the idea of ​​a political party was formed with groups arguing for the right to political representation during Putney Debate 1647. Furthermore, the Protectorate (1653-59) and English Restoration (1660) restored a more autocratic rule, even though Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 reinforcing a convention prohibiting detention of not having enough evidence or reason. After the Great Revolution of 1688, the Bill of Rights came into force in 1689 which codified certain rights and freedoms, and is still in effect. The bill establishes requirements for elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limits the royal power, ensuring that, unlike many Europeans at the time, royal absolutism would not apply.

In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich, Hetman's highest-ranking office was elected by representatives from the state districts.

In North America, a representative government began in Jamestown, Virginia, with the election of House of Burgesses (pioneer of the Virginia General Assembly) in 1619. Puritan England migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England to democratic local government and which contributed to the development of US democracy ; although this local assembly has a small amount of devolution power, the highest authority is held by the Crown and the British Parliament. The Puritans (Pilgrim Fathers), Baptists, and Quakers who established these colonies applied the democratic organization of their congregation to the administration of their communities in worldly matters.

18th and 19th centuries

The first British parliament was established in 1707, after the merger of the British Empire and the Kingdom of Scotland under the Acts of Union. Although the king is increasingly a puppet, only a small minority actually has a voice; Parliament is selected by only a few percent of the population (less than 3% until the end of 1780). During the Freedom Era in Sweden (1718-1772), civil rights expanded and power shifted from monarchy to parliament. Taxed farmers are represented in parliament, albeit with little influence, but ordinary people without tax properties have no right to vote.

The creation of a short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755 marked the first state in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution (all men and women over the age of 25 may vote). This Corsican Constitution was the first based on the principles of the Enlightenment and included women's suffrage, something not given in most other democracies until the twentieth century.

In the American colonial period before 1776, and for some time thereafter, it is often only the owners of adult white men's property may vote; the enslaved Africans, mostly blacks and most women are not renewed franchises. On the American border, democracy is a way of life, with broader social, economic and political equality. Though not described as democracy by the founders, they share a determination to outsmart the American experiment in the principles of freedom and natural equality.

The American Revolution led to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States in 1787, the oldest surviving, still active, constitution codified by the government. The Constitution provides for elected governments and protects civil rights and freedoms for some, but does not end slavery or extend voting in the United States outside of white male property owners (about 6% of the population). The Bill of Rights in 1791 set limits on governmental powers to protect personal freedom but had little impact on judgment by the courts for the first 130 years after ratification.

In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of Human Rights and Citizens and, albeit short-lived, the National Convention was elected by everyone in 1792. However, at the beginning of the 19th century, little democracy - as a theory, practiced, or even as a word - remain in the North Atlantic world.

During this period, slavery remains a social and economic institution in many parts of the world. This is especially true in the United States, and especially in the last fifteen slave states that maintain slavery in South America until the Civil War. Organizations were established advocating black movements from the United States to a location where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality.

The United Kingdom's slave trade Act 1807 prohibits trade throughout the United Kingdom, which is internationally enforced by the Royal Navy under a treaty negotiated by England with other states. As the British voting franchise increased, it was also made more uniform in a series of reforms beginning with the Reform Act of 1832. In 1833, the British Empire passed the Sovereignty Act of Slavery which prevailed throughout the British Empire.

Universal male suffrage was established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic administrations.

In the US Census of 1860, the slave population in the United States has risen to four million, and in Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s), newly freed slaves became citizens with the nominal right to vote for men. Citizenship full of citizens was not secured until after the Civil Rights Movement was granted a part by the United States Congress of the 1965 Select Rules Act.

the 20th and 21st centuries

The transition of the twentieth century to liberal democracy has come successively in the "wave of democracy", which has various consequences of war, revolution, decolonization, and religious and economic circumstances. The global wave of "democratic regressions" that reverse democratization, also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s.

World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of a new nation-state from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic.

In 1920 democracy thrived and women's suffrage grew, but the Great Depression brought disappointment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to power or dictatorship of strong men. Fascism and dictatorship flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as non-democratic governments in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others.

World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in Western Europe. Democratization of the disputed German, Italian and Japanese disputed sectors of America, England, and France serves as a model for the later theory of governance change. However, much of Eastern Europe, including the German Soviet sector, fell into a non-democratic Soviet bloc.

The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the newly independent nations had a nominally democratic constitution. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to do so. Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system.

By 1960, most countries were nominal democracies, although the majority of the world's population lived in countries with mock elections, and other forms of subterfuge (especially in "Communist" and ex-colonial countries.)

The subsequent wave of democratization brings substantial advantages to true liberal democracy for many countries. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985 and Chile in the early 1990s ). This was followed by countries in East and South Asia in the mid to late 1980s.

The economic downturn of the 1980s, along with the hatred of Soviet repression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful new democracies are those that are geographically and culturally closest to Western Europe, and they are now members or prospective EU members. In 1986, after the overthrow of Asia's most prominent dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at that time appeared in the Philippines with the advent of Corazon Aquino, later to be known as the Mother of Asian Democracy.

Liberal trends spread to several countries in Africa in the 1990s, most notably in South Africa. Some recent examples of liberalization efforts include the 1998 Indonesian Revolution, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.

According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to the World Forum on Democracy , electoral democracy now represents 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitutes 58.2 percent of the world's population. At the same time, liberal democracies are countries deemed free and respect basic human rights and rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population.

Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been reduced to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, the 2004 proposal to allow a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote on 16 was eventually defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but suspended a bill that would vote for every citizen at birth, for use by parents until the child claims it himself.

In 2007, the UN declared Sept. 15 the International Day of Democracy.

According to Freedom House, beginning in 2005, there have been eleven consecutive years where the decline of political rights and civil liberties around the world has exceeded the number of improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ubiquitous place from Poland under the Law and Justice Party)) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte).

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Measurement of democracy

Some freedom indexes are published by several organizations according to their respective definitions:

• Freedom in the World is published annually since 1972 by the US-based Freedom House with countries based on political rights and civil liberties derived largely from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Countries are rated as free , partially free , or not free .
• The World Press Freedom Index is published annually since 2002 (except that 2011 combined with 2012) by French-based Reporters Without Borders. Countries are judged to have good situations, satisfactory situations, real problems, difficult situations , or very serious situation .
• The World Freedom Index is an index that measures classical civil liberties published by the Fraser Institute in Canada, the German Liberales Institute, and the US Cato Institute. Currently not included in the table below.
• The CIRI Human Rights Data Project measures various human rights, civil, women and workers. It is now hosted by the University of Connecticut. It was made in 1994. In the 2011 report, the US was ranked 38th in overall human rights.
• The Democracy Index , published by the UK-based Economist Intelligence Unit, is a democratic assessment of countries. Countries are rated as Full Democracy , Disabled Democracy , Hybrid Regime , or authoritarian regime . Full democracy, flawed democracy, and hybrid regimes are considered democracies, and authoritarian states are considered dictators. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped into five different categories.
• The data series Polity The United States is a data series widely used in political science research. It contains coded annual information about the characteristics of regime authorities and transitions for all independent states with more than 500,000 total population and covers the years 1800-2006. Polity's conclusions about the level of democracy of a country are based on the evaluation of the country's election for competitiveness, openness and participation. Data from this series is currently not included in the table below. Polity's work is sponsored by the Political Instability Task Force (PITF) funded by the US Central Intelligence Agency. However, the views expressed in the report are the authors themselves and do not represent the views of the US Government.
• MaxRange, a set of data that defines democratic levels and institutional structures (type-regimes) on a 100-scale scale in which each value represents a unique type of regime. Values ​​are sorted from 1-100 based on democratic levels and political accountability. MaxRange defines the appropriate values ​​for all states and each month from 1789 to 2015 and updates. MaxRange was created and developed by Max Range, and is now associated with the university of Halmstad, Sweden.

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Type of government democracy

Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some types of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for its citizens than others. However, if there is an unstructured democracy that prohibits the government from excluding people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers for its own sake, then the branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy democracy.

The following types of democracies are not exclusive to each other: many detail aspects independent of each other and can co-exist in a single system.

Basic form

Several varieties of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which look at how all the qualified citizens' bodies carry out their desires. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have an active participation in political decision-making, for example voting directly on policy initiatives. In most modern democracies, all eligible citizens remain a sovereign force, but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called representative democracy.

Live

Direct democracy is a political system in which citizens participate in private decision-making, in contradiction with dependent on intermediaries or representatives. The use of many systems, a characteristic of Athens's democracy, is unique to direct democracy. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens selected from the lottery. Direct democracy gives the voter population the power to:

1. Change constitutional law,
2. Implement initiatives, referendums, and suggestions for legislation,
3. Provide binding orders to elective officials, such as withdrawal before their chosen term, or initiate a lawsuit for violating a campaign's promise.

In a modern representative government, certain electoral tools such as referendums, citizen initiatives and recall elections are referred to as direct democratic forms. However, some proponents of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussions. Direct democracy as a system of government is currently in the Swiss canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, Autonomous City of Rebel Zapatista, a community affiliated with CIPO-RFM, Bolivia FEJUVE city council, and the Kurdish region of Rojava.

Representative

Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the persons represented. If the head of state is also elected democratically then it is called a democratic republic. The most common mechanism involves the election of a candidate with a majority or a plurality of votes. Most western countries have a representative system.

Representatives may be elected or represented diplomatically by a particular district (or constituency), or represent all voters through a proportional system, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracy also includes elements of direct democracy, such as a referendum. Characteristic of representative democracy is that while representatives are elected by the people to act in the interests of the people, they still have the freedom to use their own judgments about the best way to do it. These reasons have led to criticism of representative democracy, demonstrating the contradictions of representational mechanisms with democracy

Parliament

Parliamentary democracy is representative democracy in which the government is appointed by, or may be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" in which the president is the head of state and head of government and elected by the electorate. Under parliamentary democracy, the government is run by delegates to the executive ministry and is subject to continuous review, examination and balance by the legislative parliament elected by the people.

The parliamentary system has the right to dismiss the Prime Minister whenever they feel that he is not doing his work in accordance with legislative expectations. This is done through the Vote of No Confidence in which the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from the office with majority support for his dismissal. In some countries, the Prime Minister may also call election every time he chooses, and usually the Prime Minister will hold elections when he knows that they are in good with the public to be re-elected. In elections other parliamentary democracies are almost never held, minority governments are preferred until the next general election. An important feature of parliamentary democracy is the concept of "faithful opposition". The essence of this concept is that the second largest political party (or coalition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while remaining true to the state and its democratic principles.

President

Presidential Democracy is a system in which the public elects the president through free and fair elections. The President functions well as head of state and head of government that controls most of the executive power. The President serves for a particular term and can not exceed that amount of time. The selection usually has a fixed date and is not easy to change. The President has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing cabinet members.

The president can not be easily removed from the office by the legislature, but he can not move members of the legislature more easily. This provides some measure of power separation. Therefore, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thus disrupt the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is uncommon outside America, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia.

The semi-presidential system is a democratic system in which the government includes both the prime minister and the president. The special powers held by the prime minister and the president vary from country to country.

Hybrids or semi-direct

Some of the dominant modern democracies in nature also rely heavily on forms of direct, democratic political action. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are called hybrid democracy, semi-direct democracy or participatory democracy. Examples include Switzerland and some US states, where it is often used from referendums and initiatives.

The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. At the federal level, citizens may file changes to the constitution (popular federal initiative) or request a referendum to be held in every law elected by parliament. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in just two referendums). Although in the last 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been incorporated into the referendum. Its inhabitants are conservative, agreeing only about 10% of the initiatives afforded to them; in addition, they often opt for government-initiated versions of initiatives.

In the United States, no direct democratic mechanism exists at the federal level, but more than half of states and many regions provide citizen-sponsored voting initiatives (also called "voting actions", "voting questions" or "propositions") , and most countries allow referendum. Examples include the widespread use of referendums in the state of California, USA, which is a state with more than 20 million voters.

In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a direct local democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont cities hold an annual city meeting in March where city officials are selected, budgets for cities and schools are selected, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard about political issues.

Variant

Constitutional monarchy

Many countries such as Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan, and Bhutan transform powerful kings into constitutional monarchies with a limited or, gradually, symbolic role. For example, in its predecessor states into Britain, constitutional monarchies began to emerge and have continued uninterrupted ever since the Great Revolution of 1688 and part of the Bill of Rights 1689.

In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (such as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). An elected president, with or without significant strength, becomes the head of state in these countries.

Elite top-level legislative houses, often with lifetimes or descendants, are common in many countries. Over time, this has limited power (such as with the British House of Lords) or becomes elective and remains strong (as with the Australian Senate).

Republic

The term republic has many different meanings, but today it often refers to representative democracy with elected heads of state, such as presidents, serving for a limited period of time, unlike countries with hereditary kings as a head of state , even if these countries are also representatives of democracy with elected or appointed government heads such as prime ministers.

The Founding Fathers in the United States rarely praise and often criticize democracy, which in their times tended to be especially of direct democracy, often without constitutional protections perpetuating basic rights; James Madison argues, especially in The Federalist . 10, that what distinguishes direct democracy from the republic is that the former becomes weak because it gets bigger and suffer harder than the faction's effect, whereas the republic can become stronger as it gets bigger and fights the faction with its own structure.

What is critical of American values, John Adams insists, is that governments must be "bound by permanent law, which people have a voice in making, and the right to defend." When Benjamin Franklin came out after writing the US constitution, a woman asked him, "Yes, Doctor, what do we get - a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic - if you can keep it."

Liberal democracy

Liberal democracy is representative democracy in which the ability of elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and is moderated by a constitution or law that emphasizes the protection of individual rights and freedoms, and which places obstacles on leaders and the extent to which the will of the majority can done on minority rights (see civil liberties).

In liberal democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to arise from many independent decisions made by citizens. In other words, citizens can "choose with their feet" or "choose with their dollars", generating significant informal government by the masses of many "strengths" associated with formal government elsewhere.

Socialist

Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually done through Soviet democracy) are a few examples. Many democratic social democrats and social democrats believe in participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace forms of democracy combined with representative democracy.

In Marxist orthodoxy there is hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which they call parliamentary democracy because of its often centered nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through the commune system (sometimes called soviet). This system eventually manifests itself as a council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism.)

Democracy can not only consist of elections that are almost always fictional and run by rich landowners and professional politicians.

Anarchist

Anarchists are divided in this domain, depending on whether they believe that the rule of the tyrannical majority or not. The only form of democracy deemed acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argues that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is acknowledged that majority decisions do not bind minorities, even when it is unanimous. However, Murray Bookchin anarcho-communist criticizes individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism.

Some anarcho-communists oppose the direct nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual freedom and choose to support a non-majoritarian democratic form of consensus, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. Henry David Thoreau, who did not identify as anarchist but argued for "better governance" and cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that one should not be in a position to govern another or be ordered when there is no agreement.

Sorting

Sometimes called "democracy without election", sorting chooses a decision maker through a random process. The aim is that the chosen will represent the opinions and interests of the people in general, and be fairer and impartial than an elected official. This technique is widely used in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in the selection of modern juries.

Consociational

Consultational democracy allows the majority vote simultaneously in two or more ethno-religious constituents, and the policy is enforced only if they gain majority support from both or all of them.

Consensus democracy

Consensus democracy, on the contrary, will not be dichotomized. Instead, decisions will be based on a multi-option approach, and policies will be enacted if they have sufficient support, either in pure verbal agreements, or through consensus voting - multi-option voting preferences. If the support threshold is at a sufficiently high level, such minorities will be automatically protected. Furthermore, every vote will be ethno-color blind.

Supranational

The election of a qualified majority is designed by the Rome Treaty to be the primary method of reaching decisions at the Council of Ministers of Europe. This system allocates votes to member states partially according to their population, but it is very burdensome in favor of smaller countries. This can be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives for the Council may be appointed rather than directly elected.

Inclusive

Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project aimed at direct democracy in all spheres of social life: political democracy in the form of a confederational, face-to-face assembly, economic democracy in a countryless economy, without money and no market, democracy in the social realm, at work and education, and ecological democracy that aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy arose from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards Inclusive Democracy" and further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy .

The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotics assembly, which is the assembly of demos, citizen bodies in certain geographical areas that can include the surrounding towns and villages, or even the neighborhoods of big cities. Inclusive democracy can now only take the form of a democratic confederation based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegations are elected from popular democratic assemblies in various demos. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making such as representation in representative democracies.

Citizen bodies are advised by experts but it is a citizen body that functions as a final decision maker. Authorities can be delegated to segments of citizens to perform specific tasks, for example to serve as a popular court member, or regional council and confederation. Such delegations are made, in principle, by lot, on the basis of rotation, and can always be remembered by a citizen body. Delegations to regional bodies and confederations should have a special mandate.

Participatory politics

Parpolity or Participatory Polity is the theoretical form of democracy governed by the Nested Council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people must have decision-making power proportional to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25-50 people are completely autonomous on issues that only affect them, and this board sends delegates to higher-level boards that are more autonomous on issues that affect only the population affected by the council.

A randomly elected court council serves as a check against the tyranny of the majority, and the rules on which body should choose which matter. Delegates may choose differently from how their delivery councils may wish, but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending councils. Delegates can be withdrawn at any time. Referendums may be made at any time by voting from the lowest level council, however, not all of them are referendums as this is likely to be a waste of time. Parpolity is intended to work in tandem with participative economies.

Cosmopolitan

Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as Global Democracy or World Federalism, is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representation. The important justification for such a system is that decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside constituents who, by definition, can not vote. In contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, people who are influenced by decisions also have a voice in them.

According to his supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values ​​and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; non-violent conflict resolution; and equality among citizens, beyond the borders of the state. To be fully implemented, this will require revamping the existing international organization, e.g. The United Nations, as well as the establishment of new institutions such as the World Parliament, which ideally will increase public control over, and accountability in, international politics.

Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, author Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many advocates of this type of cosmopolitan democracy.

Creative democracy

Creative democracy is supported by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea of ​​Creative Democracy is that democracy promotes the development of individual capacities and interactions among communities. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work "Creative Democracy: the Task at Our Present" and an experience built on belief in human nature, faith in humans, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral aspiration that requires the efforts and real work of people; this is not an institutional concept that exists outside of us. "The task of democracy", Dewey concluded, "is forever that the creation of a more free and more humane experience in which all share and who all contribute".

Guided democracy

Guided Democracy is a form of democracy that combines regular elections, but often carefully "guides" the options offered to voters in ways that reduce the ability of voters to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority that is often not subject to meaningful public scrutiny by other government authorities. Russian-style democracy is often referred to as "Guided Democracy". Russian politicians call their government a single center of power/authority, compared to most other forms of democracy that usually try to combine two or more competing resources naturally in the same government.

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Non-governmental democracy

Apart from public space, similar democratic principles and voting and representation mechanisms have been used to regulate other groups. Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership through voting. Most unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders by the principle of one share, one vote - sometimes equipped with workplace democracy. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that incorporates elements of democracy with sharia law, called islamocracy .

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Theory

Aristotle

Aristotle contrasts the rule by many (democracy/government), by rule by a few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and by rules by one person (tyranny or today an absolute autocracy/monarchy). He also thinks that there are good and bad variants of each system (he considers democracy as a degenerate partner to government).

For Aristotle, the basic principle of democracy is freedom, because only in democracies citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should do. There are two main aspects of freedom: to be governed and to take turns in power, for each is equal to sum, not reward, and to be able to live as a pleasant person.

But one factor of freedom is regulating and arranging alternately; for the principle of popular justice is to have the equation by amount, not worth,... And one for a man to live as he likes; because they say that this is a function of freedom, because life is not like people like is the life of a man who is a slave.

Early Republic Theory

A common view among early Republican and renaissance theorists is that democracy can only survive in small political communities. Taking heed of the lesson from the shift of the Roman Republic to monarchism as it grew larger, the theorists of this Republic argued that the expansion of territory and population must inevitably lead to tyranny. Therefore, democracy is very fragile and historically rare, because it can only survive in small political units, which because of their size are vulnerable to conquest by larger political units. The famous Montesquieu says, "if a small republic, it is destroyed by outside forces, if great, it is destroyed by an internal representative." Rousseau asserted, "Therefore, the nature of small states to be governed as a republic, which is rather subject to the king, and a great empire to be shaken by a despotic prince."

Rationale

Among the modern political theorists, there are three contradictory conceptions of the rationale of democracy: aggregate democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy.

Aggregate

The theory of aggregate democracy claims that the goal of the democratic process is to ask citizens' preferences and combine them together to determine what social policies the society should adopt. Therefore, advocates of this view argue that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, in which the policy with the most votes is exercised.

Various variants of aggregate democracy exist. Under minimalist , democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens can not and should not "rule" because, for example, on most matters, most of the time, they have no clear views or unfounded views. Joseph Schumpeter articulates this most famous view in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy . Contemporary minimalist supporters include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner.

According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens must choose directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer various reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and people's participation can examine strong elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really organize themselves unless they directly decide on laws and policies.

The government will tend to produce laws and policies close to the median voter's view - with half on the left and the other half on their right. This is actually not a desirable outcome as it represents the actions of elite politicians who are interested and somewhat unaccountable to compete for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are needed to act as intermediary mediators between individuals and governments. Downs put this view in his 1957 book Theory of Economic Democracy.

Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental principle of democracy is that when it comes to collective binding decisions, everyone in the political community is entitled to have its interests given equal consideration (not necessarily that everyone is equally satisfied with the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to a society in which there are certain sets of institutions and procedures deemed to lead to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the free and open elections used to elect representatives who then manage all or most public policies of society. However, this polihidik procedure may not create full democracy if, for example, poverty impedes political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is substantive, not just procedural, ideal."

Deliberative

Prestigious democracy is based on the idea that democracy is governance through deliberation. Unlike aggregate democracy, deliberative democracies state that, for legitimate democratic decisions, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not just the aggregation of preferences that take place in a vote. Authentic Deliberations are deliberations among decision-makers free from distortions of unequal political power, such as decision-making power gained through economic wealth or support from interest groups. If the decision maker can not reach consensus after authentically negotiating the proposal, then they choose the proposal using the form of majority rule. Many theorists are discussing Debliberative Democracy conceptions, given the particular thought of JÃÆ'¼rgen Habermas.

Radicals

Radical democracy is based on the idea that there is a hierarchical and oppressive power relationship that exists in society. The role of democracy is to make visible and challenging relationships by allowing differences, disagreements and disagreements in the decision-making process.

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Criticism

Inefficiency

Some economists criticize the efficiency of democracy, cite the premise of irrational voters, or voters who make decisions without all the facts or information necessary to make informed decisions. Another argument is that democracy slows down the process because of the amount of input and participation required to move forward with decisions. A commonly cited example to prove this is the high economic development achieved by China (a non-democratic country) compared to India (a democratic country). According to economists, the lack of democratic participation in countries such as China allows unfettered economic growth.

Socrates, on the other hand, believes that a democracy without an educated mass (educated in a broader sense of knowledge and responsibility) would only lead to populism being a criterion for becoming an elected leader, rather than a competency. This will eventually lead to the death of the nation. This is quoted by Plato in the book of 10 Republicans, in Socrates' conversation with Adimantus. Socrates argued that the right to vote should not be an indiscriminate right (eg by birth or citizenship), but should be given only to people who are reasonably mindful of their choice.

Popular rules as faÃÆ'§ade

The 20th century Italian thinker Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca (independent) argue that democracy is an illusion, and only serves to mask the reality of elite government. Indeed, they argue that the elite oligarchy is a non-negotiable law of human nature, primarily due to apathy and mass distribution (as opposed to the elite's drive, initiative and unity), and that democratic institutions will do nothing but shift. exercise power from oppression to manipulation. As Louis Brandeis once stated, "We may have democracy, or our wealth is concentrated in the hands of a handful of people, but we can not have both."

Mob rules

Plato's Republic presents a critical view of democracy through the narrative of Socrates: "Democracy, which is a form of charming government, full of variations and disorders, and removes some sort of equality to be unequaled and unequaled." In his work, Plato registered 5 forms of government from the best to the worst. Assuming that the Republic was intended to be a serious criticism of Athens' political thinking, Plato argued that only Kallipolis, the aristocracy led by unwilling king-philosophers (the wisest ones), was a fair form. from the government.

James Madison criticized direct democracy (which he referred to simply as "democracy") in Federalist. 10, arguing that representative democracy - which he described using the term "republic" - is a better form of government, saying: "... democracy has been a spectacle of turbulence and contention, never found to be incompatible with personal security or property, and in general have become short in their lives because they have committed violence in their deaths. "Madison offers that the republic is superior to democracy because the republic is protected against the tyranny of the majority, states in Federalist No. 192. 10: "the same advantages a republic has over democracy, in controlling the effects of factions, enjoyed by the great above the small republic".

Political instability

More recently, democracy has been criticized for not offering enough political stability. Because governments are often elected and disabled there tend to be frequent changes in democratic state policies both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party retains power, incessantly, headlines grabbing protests and harsh criticism from popular media is often enough to force sudden and unexpected political changes. Frequent business and immigration-related policy changes tend to hinder investment and hamper economic growth. For this reason, many people argue for the idea that democracy is undesirable for developing countries where economic growth and poverty reduction are a top priority.

This opportunist alliance not only has a disability because it has to meet too many factions opposing ideology, but usually only briefly because any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or leadership changes within the coalition partners themselves, can very easily lead to coalition partners withdraw its support from the government.

The media bias has been accused of causing political instability, resulting in barriers to democracy, not promotion.

Cheat selection

In representative democracy, it may not benefit shareholders to make fair elections. A study shows that petahana who nominate elections remain in office 2.5 times during those who allow fair elections. Democracy in countries with high per capita incomes has been found to be less vulnerable to violence, but in low-income countries, the trend is vice versa. Election violations are more likely in countries with low per capita incomes, small populations, rich in natural resources, and lack of checks

Source of the article : Wikipedia