Aristoteles ( ; Greece: ??????????? Aristotle , pronounced [aristotÃÆ'Â © l ?: s] ; 384-322 BC ) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the town of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece. Together with Plato, Aristotle is regarded as the "Father of Western Philosophy", which inherits almost the entire lexicon of his teachings, including problems and methods of inquiry, thus affecting almost all forms of knowledge.
Little is known for sure about his life. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was raised by a wali. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, he joined the Plato Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (about 347 BC). His writings cover many subjects - including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics and government - and are the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. Not long after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedonia, taught Alexander at the beginning of 343 BC. Teaching Alexander gave Aristotle many chances. He founded a library in the Lyceum that helped him generate many of his hundreds of books, which are papyrus scrolls. The fact that Aristotle was a student of Plato contributed to his view of Platonism, but, after Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in an empirical study and shifted from Platonism to empiricism. He believes all concepts and knowledge are ultimately based on perception. Aristotle's view of the natural sciences represents the foundation upon which much of his work is based.
Aristotle's view of physical science greatly shaped medieval science. Their influence extended from the Final Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance, and was not systematically replaced until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some observations of Aristotle's zoology, as in the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were pagan until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal studies of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotelianism greatly influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Early Church Neoplatonism and the Catholic Church's scholastic tradition. Aristotle was honored among medieval Muslim clerics as the "First Teacher". The ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the rise of modern virtue ethics.
All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of academic study. Although Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only about a third of his original surviving output, none of which are intended for publication. Aristotle has been described by great artists including Raphael and Rembrandt. Early Modern Theory included the blood circulation of William Harvey and the Galileo Galilei kinematics developed in reaction to Aristotle. In the nineteenth century, George Boole gave Aristotle's logic a mathematical basis with his algebraic logic system. In the 20th century, Martin Heidegger created a new interpretation of Aristotle's political philosophy, but elsewhere Aristotle was widely criticized, even ridiculed by thinkers such as philosopher Bertrand Russell and biologist Peter Medawar. More recently, Aristotle is once again taken seriously, as in the thoughts of Ayn Rand and Alasdair MacIntyre, while Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology. Aristotle's imagery that guides the young Alexander remains current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, and Poetics continues to play a role in US cinema.
Video Aristotle
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In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well established. Biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on some important points.
Aristotle, whose name means "best goal" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern Thessaloniki. His father, Nicomachus, was a personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he may spend some time inside the Macedonian palace, making his first connection with the Macedonian monarchy.
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at the Plato Academy. He remained there for almost twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional account of his departure noted that he was disappointed with the Academy's directions after control was given to Plato's nephew Speusippus, though he probably feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the palace of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle traveled with his disciple Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they studied the botany and zoologi of sheltered islands and lagoons. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either his adopted daughter or niece of Hermias. She gave birth to a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedonia to become a teacher for his son, Alexander.
Aristotle was appointed head of the Macedonian academy. During Aristotle's time in the palace of Macedonia, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but to the other two future kings: Ptolemeus and Cassander. Aristotle led Alexander to the conquest of the east and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was not timid ethnocentric. In a well-known example, he advised Alexander to be "a leader for the Greeks and the wicked to barbarians, to keep the first as friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with animals or plants." In 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens, setting up his own school there known as Lyceum. Aristotle went to school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle was involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who gave birth to a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to Suda , he also has erÃÆ'Â'menos , Palaephatus from Abydus.
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, was when Aristotle was believed to have composed much of his work. He wrote many dialogues, in which only a few survived. Works that have survived in the form of treatises and are not, for the most part, intended for wide publications; they are generally considered to be a teaching aid for their students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, Souls > i> and Poetics . Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theater."
Toward the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became alien over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persia. A widespread tradition in ancient times suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim about six years after death. Following Alexander's death, the anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens rose again. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for immodesty, prompting him to flee to his mother's family home in Chalcis, in Euboea, where his chance was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy "- a reference to the court of Athens and the execution of Socrates. He died on natural causes Euboea later that same year, after naming his disciple, Antipater as the main executor and left a will where he asked to be buried beside his wife.
Maps Aristotle
Abstract philosophy
Logic
With Preliminary Analysis , Aristotle was credited with the initial study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic to the progress of the nineteenth century in mathematical logic. Kant states in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle's logic reaching its completion.
Analytics and Organon
What we today call Aristotelian logic with the kinds of syllogisms (the method of logical argument), Aristotle himself will be labeled "analytic". The term "logic" which he calls means dialectics. Most of Aristotle's works may not be in their original form, as they are most likely edited by later students and lecturers. Aristotle's logical works were compiled into a set of six books called Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. His books are:
- Categories
- In Interpretation
- Previous analysis
- Posterior Analysis
- Topics
- About Honor Disclaimers
The order of the books (or teachings from which they were composed) is uncertain, but this list comes from the analysis of Aristotle's writings. It comes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in Category, the analysis of propositions and their basic relationships in In Interpretation , to study more complex forms, ie, syllogisms (in < i> Analytics ) and dialectics (in Topic and Sadis Disclaimer ). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu : the grammar of logic language and the rules of reasoning are correct. The Rhetoric is not included conventionally, but states that it depends on Topics .
Epistemology
Like his master, Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Ontology Aristotle puts universal ( katholou ) specifically ( kath 'hekaston ), things in the world, whereas for Plato universal is a form that exists separately imitated things real. This means that the epistemology of Aristotle is based on the study of things existing or happening in the world, and ascending to the knowledge of the universe, whereas for Plato's epistemology begins with the knowledge of the universal Form (or idea) and descends into the knowledge of certain imitations of this. For Aristotle, "form" is still a phenomenon based on, but "used" in a particular substance. Aristotle used the induction of the sample with deduction, while Plato relied on the deduction of the principles of a priori .
In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy that examines the phenomena of the natural world, and includes areas to be considered today as physics, biology, and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work covers almost all aspects of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he will also describe as "science". However, it should be noted that its use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all sciences ( dianoia ) are practical, poetic, or theoretical" ( Metaphysics 1025b25). Its practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; Its theoretical sciences include physics, mathematics, and metaphysics.
Metaphysics
Aristotle coined the term "metaphysics". He also called it "first philosophy", and set it apart from mathematics and natural sciences (physics) as a contemplative philosophy ( theoretik? ) that "theological" and learn the divine. He wrote in his book Metaphysics (1026a16):
- if nothing else is independent of nature, the study of nature will be the main kind of knowledge; but if there are some things that do not move, this knowledge precedes it and is the first philosophy, and it is universal only in this way , because this is the first. And it belongs to this kind of philosophy to learn to be what it is, what it is and what belongs to it only becomes virtue.
substance, potency and actuality
Aristotle examined the concept of substance (olii ousia) and essence ( to ti ÃÆ'ªn einai , "what would happen") in his book Metaphysics (Book VII) , and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguished the substance as the substrate, or the goods he composed. For example, the problem of a house is a brick, stone, wood etc., or whatever is a potential house, while the substance is the actual house, which is 'covering for the body and the gang' or any other person who allows us to define something as a home. The formula that gives the components is an explanation of the problem, and the formula that makes a difference is the form account.
With regard to the changes ( kinesis ) and the cause now, as he defines in Physics and In Generation and Corruption 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming from:
- growth and subtraction, which is a change in quantity;
- locomosi, ie change of space; and
- change, which is a change in quality.
What will happen is a change in which nothing remains where the resulting property is. In that change he introduced the concept of potential ( dynamis ) and the actuality ( entelecheia ) in relation to the material and its form. Referring to potential, this is something that can be done, or acted upon, if the conditions are right and not prevented by something else. For example, the seeds of plants in the soil are potentially ( dynamei ) plants, and if not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially, beings can be 'acting' ( poiein ) or "acted upon" ( paschein ), which can be innate or learned. For example, the eye has the potential for vision (congenital - acted upon), while the ability to play the flute can be had by learning (practice - acting). Actuality is the ultimate fulfillment of potential. Because the end ( telos ) is the principle of every change, and for the purpose there is potential, therefore the actuality is the end. Referring to our previous example, we can say that an actuality is when a plant performs one of the activities of the plant.
For that purpose ( for houeka ) a matter, is the principle, and becomes the end-time end; and the reality is the end, and for this, that potential is gained. Because animals do not see so they can see, but they have visions they may see.
In short, the problems used to create a home have the potential to be home and both building activities and the final home form are the actualities, which are also the cause of the end or end. Then Aristotle goes on and concludes that his actuality is before potential in formulas, in time and in substance. By the definition of this particular substance (ie, matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of beings, for example, "what makes man one"? Because, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animals and bipeds, how then man becomes one? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual (form) are one and the same.
Universal and special
Plato argues that everything has a universal form, which can be a property or relationship with other things. When we see apples, for example, we see apples, and we can also analyze the shape of apples. In this distinction, there are certain apples and universal forms of an apple. In addition, we can place an apple next to the book, so we can talk about both books and apples as contiguous. Plato argues that there are some universal forms that are not part of certain things. For example, it is possible that no special good exists, but "good" is still the proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato in this respect, arguing that all universal is used at some time period, and that there is no universe that is not bound by the things that exist. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the universal location. Where Plato speaks of the world of form, the place where all universal forms live, Aristotle maintains that universals exist in every thing in which every universal is predicted. Thus, according to Aristotle, the form of apple is in every apple, and not in the world of its forms.
Nature philosophy
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" includes many natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology, and other natural sciences.
Physics
Five elements
In his book In Generation and Corruption, Aristotle connects each of the four elements previously proposed by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of four reasonable qualities, heat, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter is made up of four elements, in different proportions. The Aristotelian scheme adds a heavenly Aether, a divine substance of celestial spheres, stars and planets.
Motion
Aristotle describes two types of motion: "violence" or "improper movement", like a stone thrown, in Physics (254b10), and "natural movement", like falling objects, in (300a20). In the violent movement, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the movement stops as well; in other words, the natural state of an object is to rest, for Aristotle does not overcome friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle states, heavy objects (on the ground, say) need more power to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This will imply equations
-
- ,
clearly wrong in modern terms.
The natural motion depends on the element in question: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the sky, while the four Empedoclean elements move vertically upward (like fire, as observed) or down (like the earth) to their natural resting place.
In 215a25, Aristotle effectively states the quantitative law, that velocity, v, the fallen body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and is inversely proportional to density, from the fluid in which it falls:
Aristotle implies that in a vacuum, the speed of fall will become infinite, and infer from the apparent absurdity that a vacuum is impossible. Opinions vary on whether Aristotle intended to declare a quantitative law. Henri Carteron held an "extreme view" that the concept of Aristotle's power was essentially qualitative, but other writers rejected it.
Archimedes refined Aristotle's theory that the body is moving toward their natural resting place; metal ships can float if they move enough water; floating depending on the Archimedes scheme on the mass and volume of the object, unlike Aristotle thought to be its basic composition.
Aristotle's writings on motion remain influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have demonstrated through experiments that Aristotle's claim that heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects is incorrect. The opposite view is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that the physics of Aristotle's movement is correct in the domain of its validity, that objects in the Earth's gravitational field are immersed in liquids such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady downfall do travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they fall more slowly in a more dense medium.
Newton's "forced" movement corresponds to Aristotle's "hard" movement with his external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the effects of an agent ceases to stop acting (for example, the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he must think that the fluid around him helps push the ball together for keeping him going up even though his hands no longer act on them, resulting in a theory of medieval encouragement.
Four causes
Aristotle suggests that the reasons for something happening can be attributed to the four simultaneously active types of factors. The term aitia has traditionally been translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to a temporary order; may be better translated as "explanation", but traditional rendering will be used here.
- The material causes the material to be composed of something that is composed. So the material cause of a table is wood. It's not about action. That does not mean that one domino beats another domino.
- The formal cause is the form, which is the arrangement of that thing. It tells us what it is, that something is determined by definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It includes an explanation of causes in fundamental principles or general laws, because the whole (ie macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole cause. Simply put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor who brought the statue into being. A simple example of a formal cause is a mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create an image.
- An efficient cause is the "primary source", or from which the changes under consideration take place. It identifies 'what makes what is made and what causes change from what is changed' and thus suggests all sorts of agents, not living or living, acting as a source of change or movement or rest. Representing an understanding of causality as a cause and effect relationship, this includes the modern definition of "cause" either as an agent or agent or a particular event or state of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first one is thrown it causes the second to fall too. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it evolves from the egg, and how it functions its body.
- The last cause ( telos ) is the goal, the reason why something exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The last cause is the purpose or function that should be served by something. It includes modern ideas about causes of motivation, such as will. In the case of living things, it shows an adaptation to a particular way of life.
Optics
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using camera obscures in Problems, book 15. Equipment consists of dark spaces with small holes that let light in. With that, he sees that no matter what shape he makes a hole, the sun's image always stays circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnifies the image.
Opportunities and spontaneity
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and coincidence are the causes of several things, distinguishable from other types of causes such as simple needs. The probable cause of incidental lies in the field of things that are not intentional, "from what is spontaneous". There are also more special types of opportunities, called Aristotle as "luck," which apply only to human moral choices. Astronomy
In astronomy, Aristotle denies Democritus's claim that the Milky Way consists of "stars shaded by the sun," indicating correctly that if "the sun's size is greater than the earth and the distance of stars from the earth is many times greater than the sun , then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screen none of them. "
Geology
Aristotle was one of the first to record any geological observations. He states that geological changes are too slow to observe in a person's lifetime. Geologist Charles Lyell notes that Aristotle describes such changes, including "dried up lakes" and "deserts that have been doused by rivers," citing the growth of the Nile delta since Homer's time, and "the warming of one of the Aeolian islands, before the eruption volcano. "'
Biology
Empirical research
Aristotle was the first to study biology systematically, and biology formed most of his writing. He spent two years observing and explaining the Lesbos zoology and the surrounding sea, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon at the center of Lesbos. The data in Animal History , Animal Generation , Animal Movement , and Animal Section are assembled from his own observations, given statements by people with special knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travelers from abroad. The obvious emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his work on botany has been lost, but two books on plants by his disciple Theophrastus have survived.
Aristotle reports the marine life seen from observations on Lesbos and the catch of fishermen. He explains catfish, electric light, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods like octopus and nautilus paper. His explanation of the hectocotyl arm of the cephalopod, used in sexual reproduction, was not believed until the 19th century. He gave an accurate description of four-fore-stomach ruminants, and the development of ovoviviparous embryos from hound sharks.
He notes that animal structures are perfect for functioning, so, among birds, storks, who live in swamps with soft mud and live by catching fish, have long necks and long legs, and sharp beak like spears, while swim ducks has short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these differences among similar types of animals, but unlike Aristotle used data to arrive at the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can be understood by modern readers who imply evolution, but while Aristotle is aware that a new mutation or hybridization can occur, he sees this as a rare accident. For Aristotle, accidents, such as heat waves in winter, should be considered different from natural causes. Thus, he criticized the materialist theory of Empedocles about the origin of living things and its "indestructible survival organs", and laughed at the idea that accidents can lead to regular results. To put his view into modern terms, he never said that different species can have the same ancestor, or that one species may turn into another, or a species that can become extinct.
Scientific style
Aristotle did not experiment in the modern sense. He uses the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi which means observation, or at most investigative procedures such as dissection. In Animal Generation , he finds a fertilized chicken egg at an appropriate stage and opens it to see the embryonic heart in it.
Instead, he practices a different style of science: systematically collecting data, finding common patterns for an entire group of animals, and summarizing the possible causal explanations of this. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data are available in new fields, such as genomics. It does not produce the same certainty as experimental science, but it establishes a testable hypothesis and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle summed up a number of rules that linked the life history of living tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he learned. Among the correct predictions are as follows. Mother size decreases with body mass (adult), so elephants have younger (usually only one) per parent than mice. Age increases with the period of pregnancy, and also with body mass, so elephants live longer than mice, have longer pregnancy periods, and are more severe. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, long-lived species such as elephants have a total number of younger than short-lived species such as mice.
Classification of living things
Aristotle distinguished about 500 animal species, composing this in Animal History on a scale of graded perfection, scala naturae , with the above human. The system has eleven levels of animals, from the highest potential to the lowest, expressed in its birth shape: the highest gives live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest of which lays cold eggs, such as dry minerals. Animals come on top of the plant, and this in turn is above the mineral. He classifies what modern zoologists call vertebrates as warmer "animals with blood", and under them cooler invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those who have blood are divided into living bears (mammals), and lay eggs (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood are insects, crustaceans (unpeeled, peeled cephalopods) and hard-shell molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He admits that animals do not fit right into linear scales, and take note of exceptions, such as sharks that have placentas such as tetrapods. For a modern biologist, his explanation, unavailable to Aristotle, is a convergent evolution. He believed that the ultimate goal aimed at directing all natural processes; This teleological view justifies the observed data as a formal design expression.
Psychology
Soul
The psychology of Aristotle, given in his treatise On the Soul (psyche fairy), presupposes three types of souls: the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul combines the power of another kind: As the vegetative soul can grow and nurture itself; such a sensitive soul can experience sensation and move locally. The unique part of the human soul, rationally is its ability to accept other forms of things and compare them by using nous (intelek) and logo (reason).
For Aristotle, the soul is the being of a living being. Since all beings are a mixture of forms and matter, the forms of living beings are burdening them with what is specific to living things, such as the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle deems the type of movement). Unlike the previous philosopher, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed a rational soul in the heart, not the brain. Notable is the division of the sensations and thoughts of Aristotle, which were in general contradictory to earlier philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.
Memory
According to Aristotle on On the Soul , memory is the ability to hold the perceived experience in your mind and to distinguish between "internal" appearance and past events. In other words, memory is a recoverable mental imagery. Aristotle believes an abandoned impression on the semi-liquid body organs that undergoes some changes to create memory. Memory occurs when stimuli like scene or sound is so complex that the nervous system can not receive all the impressions at once. This change is the same as those involved in sensational operations, Aristotelian 's senses, and thoughts.
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual detention of experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and to the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression of being formed at a certain time and processing certain content. Memory is the past, the prediction is the future, and the sensation is the present. Impression capture can not be done unexpectedly. A transitional channel is required and lies in our previous experience, both for our previous experience and our current experience.
Because Aristotle believed that people accepted all kinds of sense perceptions and regarded them as impressions, people continued to unite new impressions from experience. To search for these impressions, people search for the memory itself. In memory, if one experience is offered in lieu of a certain memory, that person will deny this experience until they find what they are looking for. Contemplation occurs when one experience taken naturally follows the other. If an "image" chain is required, one memory will stimulate the next. When people remember experiences, they stimulate previous experiences until they reach what is needed. Thus, recollection is a self-directed activity to retrieve information stored in the memory impression. Only humans can remember the impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have a perception of time can retrieve memories from their past observations. Remembering only involves perceptions of things to remember and time passes.
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ended with a certain recollection of impressions, was systematically connected in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and proximity, described in the Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden in our minds. A power operates to awaken hidden matter to bring about actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is a congenital power in the mental state, which operates on the remnants of an unexpressed experience, allowing them to rise and be remembered.
Dream
Aristotle describes sleeping in On Sleep and Wakefulness . Sleep occurs as a result of overuse of the senses or digestion, so it is very important for the body. When a person is asleep, critical activities, which include thinking, feeling, remembering and remembering, do not work as they do when awake. Because a person can not feel during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses can work during sleep, although different, unless they are tired.
Dreams do not involve really feeling the stimulus. In dreams, sensations are still involved, but in different ways. Aristotle explains that when one looks at a stimulus that moves like a wave in a body of water, and then turns away, the next thing they see seems to have a wave-like motion. When a person feels stimulus and stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses function properly, one continually finds new stimuli to feel and the impression of a previously perceived stimulus is ignored. However, during sleeping impressions made throughout the day is noticed as there is no new disturbing sensory experience. So, dreams are generated from this lasting impression. Since the impressions are all that is left and not the right stimuli, the dream does not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in a changed state of mind. Aristotle compares the sleeping person to someone who is overcome by a strong sense of the stimulus. For example, someone who has a strong madness with someone might start thinking that they see people everywhere because they are so overpowered by their feelings. Because someone who sleeps in a state that can be persuaded and can not make judgments, they become easily fooled by what appears in their dreams, like a person who is crazy. It makes people believe that dreams are real, even when the dreams do not make sense.
One component of Aristotle's dream theory does not conform to the previously held beliefs. He claims that dreams do not predict and are not sent by divine beings. Aristotle thought naturally that the events in which dreams resemble future events are just coincidences. Aristotle claimed that the dream was first established by the fact that the man was asleep when they experienced it. If someone has a picture that appears for a moment after waking or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they wake up when it happens. Second, any sensory experience felt when a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, when a person is asleep, the door is closed and in their dream, they hear the door closed, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Finally, the dream images must be the result of the eternal impressions of sensory experiences that are awake.
Practical philosophy
Aristotle's practical philosophy includes areas such as ethics, politics, and rhetoric.
Ethics
Aristotle regarded ethics as a practical study rather than theoretical, that is, aiming to be good and to do good rather than knowing for himself. He wrote some treatises on ethics, including especially, Nicomachean Ethics .
Aristotle taught that virtue must be done with the proper function (ergon ) of an object. Eyes are just as good eyes as can be seen, because the proper eye function is vision. Aristotle reasoned that man should have a special function for man, and that this function should be the activity of the psuch? ( soul ) according to the reason ( logo ). Aristotle identifies such optimum activity (the moral mean, among the superfluous or deficient properties) of the soul as the goal of all deliberate human actions,
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires the first stage to have the fortune to not be habituated deliberately, but by the teacher, and experience, leading to the next stage in which a person consciously chooses to do the best. When the best people come to live their lives in this way their practical wisdom ( phronesis ) and their intelligence (nous ) can evolve into each other toward the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom from a theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
Politics
In addition to his works on ethics, which discuss the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work entitled Politics . Aristotle regarded the city as a natural community. Moreover, he considers the city an important priority for families which in turn is before the individual, "for the overall necessity of necessity before the part". He also famously states that "man is essentially a political animal" and also argues that the defining factor of man among others in the animal kingdom is his rationality. Aristotle considers politics as an organism, not like an engine, and as a collection of parts that no one can exist without the other. Aristotle's conception of a city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to understand the city in this way.
The general modern understanding of the political community as a modern state is very different from Aristotle's understanding. Though he is aware of the existence and potential of a larger empire, the natural community according to Aristotle is a city (policy) that serves as a political "community" or "partnership" ( coin nia ). The purpose of the city is not only to avoid injustice or economic stability, but to allow at least some citizens to have the possibility of living a good life, and to do a beautiful act: "Political partnerships must be considered, therefore, as for the sake of noble action, not for the sake of life together. "This is distinguished from the modern approach, beginning with the social contract theory, which he thinks individuals leave the natural state of" fear of cruel death "or" discomfort ".
In Protrepticus , the character 'Aristotle' states:
Because we all agree that the best person must rule, that is, the highest by nature, and that the rule of law and alone is authoritative; but law is a kind of intelligence, a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standards do we have, what are the criteria of good things, which are more precise than intelligent people? For all that this man would choose, if the choice was based on his knowledge, things were good and relationships were bad. And since everyone chooses the one that best fits their own disposition (a man who chooses to live just, a man with the courage to live bravely, as well as a man who is self-controlled to live by self-control), it is clear that intelligent humans will choose the most important thing to be smart; for this is a function of that capacity. Then it is clear that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is the highest among the goods.
Economy
Aristotle made a substantial contribution to economic thought, particularly in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle deals with cities, property, and commerce. His response to criticism of private ownership, in the view of Lionel Robbins, anticipates the proponents of private property among later philosophers and economists, as it relates to the overall usefulness of social arrangements. Aristotle believes that although communal arrangements may appear to be beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social disputes, such crimes are actually of human nature. In Politics , Aristotle offers one of the earliest records on the origin of money. Money starts to use because people become dependent on one another, importing what they need and exporting surplus. For convenience, people then agree to deal with something that is intrinsically useful and easy to apply, such as iron or silver.
Aristotle's discussion of retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He has a low opinion about retail, believing that contrary to using money to get something needed in managing households, retail trade seeks to make a profit. Thus, the goods are used as a means to an end, not as an end in itself. He believes that retail trade in this way is unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making profits through unnatural interest, because he benefited from the money itself, and not from its use.
Aristotle gives a summary of the function of money that may be very mature prematurely. He writes that since it is impossible to determine the value of each item through the count of the number of other valuable items, the need arises from one universal measurement standard. Thus money makes it possible to associate different items and make them "worth it". He said that money is also useful for future exchanges, making it a kind of security. That is, "if we do not want something now, we will be able to get it when we want it".
Rhetoric and poetry
Aristotle Rhetoric proposes that a speaker may use three basic types of submission to persuade his audience: ethos (attraction of speaker character), pathos (audience emotional appeal ), and logo (appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorized rhetoric into three genres: epideictic, forensic (judicial speech on errors or innocence), and deliberative (speech that calls for hearings to make decisions about a problem). Aristotle also describes two types of rhetorical evidence: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).
Aristotle wrote in his book Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music and dance are all fundamentally mimesis ("imitations"), each of which varies in imitation by media, objects, and ways. He applied the term "mimesis" both as a property of the artwork and also as a product of the artist's intentions and argued that the audience realization of the mimesis is essential for understanding. the job itself. Aristotle declares that mimesis is the natural human instinct that separates man from animals and that all human art "follows the pattern of nature". Therefore, Aristotle believes that each of the mimetic art has what Stephen Halliwell calls "a highly structured procedure for the attainment of their goals." For example, music mimics the media of rhythm and harmony, while dance mimics with rhythm only, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their imitation objects. Comedy, for example, is a dramatic male imitation that is worse than average; while tragedies imitate men slightly better than average. Finally, the forms differ in the way they imitate - through narration or character, through change or without change, and through drama or without drama.
Though it is believed that Aristotle Poetry originally consisted of two books - one in comedy and one in tragedy - only the tragedy-focused section has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy consists of six elements: structure-plot, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyrical poetry. The characters in tragedy are merely vehicles for moving the story; and the storyline, not its character, is the main focus of the tragedy. Tragedy is a clone of action that evokes pity and fear, and is intended to affect the catharsis of the same emotion. Aristotle concluded Poetics with a discussion that, if good, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggested that since tragedy has all the epic attributes, it may have additional attributes such as spectacle and music, more united, and reaching its mimetic goals in shorter spheres, it can be considered superior to the epic. Aristotle was a keen collector of clumps, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the Delphic Oracle puzzle and learned Aesop's tale.
Views on women
Aristotle's analysis of procreation represents an active and exciting masculine element that brings life to passive female elements of passivity. On this basis, feminist metaphysical supporters have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gives equal weight to the happiness of women as he does to men, and comments in Rhetoric that things that lead to happiness must be in women and men.
Influence
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential men who ever lived. He contributes to almost every field of human knowledge that exists, and he is the founder of many new fields. According to philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any man ever knew as much as he did". Among other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneering the study of zoology, and leaving every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in Classical Tradition, observes that his achievements in establishing two sciences are unmatched, and his reach in affecting "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethics and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis are equally length. Consequently, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of today's reality "will almost certainly bring the feel of Aristotle... proof of a very strong mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "a report about Aristotle's intellectual life would be slightly less than the history of European thought".
In sponsorship, Theophrastus
The disciples and successors of Aristotle, Theophrastus, wrote History of Plants , a pioneering work in botany. Some technical terms are still used, such as articles of carpos , fruit, and pericarp, of pericarpion , seed space. Theophrastus is less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle, but pragmatically describes how plants function.
In the later Greek philosopher
The direct influence of Aristotle's work was felt when the Lyceum grew into a Peripatetic school. Aristotle's famous students include Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence on Alexander the Great is seen in the latter carrying with him in his expeditions a number of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He also learned much about Persian habits and traditions from his teacher. Though his respect for Aristotle diminished when his journey made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "You did not do well to publish your acroamatic doctrine, for in what should I surpass others if the doctrines I have trained are belong to all men? "
About Hellenistic science
After Theophrastus, Lyceum failed to produce original work. Although interest in Aristotle's ideas persisted, they were generally unquestionable. It was not until the age of Alexandria under Ptolemies that progress in biology could be rediscovered.
The first medical teacher in Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placed intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system with motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguishes between the veins and arteries, noting that the last while the first pulse does not. Although some ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological point of view of Aristotle's ideas about life, teleology (and after the resurgence of Christianity, natural theology) would remain essential to biological thinking essentially until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ernst Mayr stated that "there are no real consequences in biology after Lucretius and Galen to the Renaissance."
In the Byzantine scholar
Greek Christian scribes played an important role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all extant Greek manuscripts from the corpus. The first Greek Christians who commented extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria at the beginning of the seventh century. Philoponus stands out for having sought fundamental criticism of Aristotle's views on the timelessness of the world, the movements, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. After several centuries of hiatus, official comments by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.
In the medieval Islamic world
Aristotle was one of the most respected Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of Aristotle's remaining works, as well as a number of genuine Greek comments, are translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scientists. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote of Aristotle in depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus regards Aristotle as a remarkable and unique representative of philosophy and Averroes speaks of Aristotle as an "example" for all future philosophers. The medieval Muslim scholar regularly portrays Aristotle as "The First Teacher". The title of "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in Dante's famous poem) influenced by Islamic philosophical traditions.
In accordance with Greek theory, Muslims regard Aristotle as a dogmatic philosopher, author of a closed system, and believe that Aristotle shares with Plato's central teachings. Some go as far as to reward Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.
In medieval Europe
With the loss of the study of ancient Greece in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Aristotle's interest arose again and Latin Christians made translations, both from Arabic translations, such as Gerard's work of Cremona, and from the original Greek, as James of Venetians and William of James Moerbeke. After the scholasticism Thomas Aquinas wrote his book Summa Theologica, working from the Moerbeke translation and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher," the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating the re-awakening of Aristotelianism. in Europe that continues into the Renaissance. These thinkers combine Aristotle's philosophy with Christianity, bringing Ancient Greek thought into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotle's logic.
Medieval medieval English poet Chaucer describes his pupil happy with possessing
A medieval story reminds that Aristotle advised his disciple, Alexander, to avoid the lucrative lady of the king, Phyllis, but himself captivated by him, and let him ride him. Phyllis quietly told Alexander what was expected, and he watched Phyllis prove that the charm of women can overcome even the greatest male philosopher's intelligence. Artists like Hans Baldung produce a series of illustrations from popular themes.
Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy :
In Early Modernists
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted to the theories of Aristotle and other classical thinkers such as Galen, building new theories based on certain levels on observation and experimentation. Harvey demonstrates blood circulation, establishes that the heart functions as a pump rather than the seat of the soul and the controller of body heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used a more dubious argument to replace Aristotle's physics, proposing that all objects fall at the same speed, no matter how much weight.
In the 19th century thinkers
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche was said to have taken almost all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle separates the act of production rigidly, and debates the proper adherence of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (goodness, arete ) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzche, who outlined Aristotle's new interpretation, intended to ensure his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical traditions.
British mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, above, and so forth" with the algebraic logic system in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. It provides the basic logic of mathematics with equations, allowing it to solve equations as well as checking validity, and allowing it to deal with a broader class of problems by extending the proposition of a number of terms, rather than just two.
Modern rejection and rehabilitation
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work has been heavily criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argues that "almost every serious intellectual advance must begin with an attack on some of Aristotle's doctrines". Russell calls Aristotle's "repugnant" ethics, and labeled his logic "as a definite ancient as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell states that these mistakes make it difficult to do historical justice for Aristotle, until someone remembers what progress he made on all of his predecessors. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar was still able to express in the pure "seventeenth-century" tone that Aristotle had conceived "a strange and generally grueling rumor, an imperfect observation, a delusion of thought and confidence very gullible ".
At the beginning of the 21st century, however, Aristotle is considered more serious: Kukkonen notes that "In the best 20th century scholarship Aristotle came to life as a thinker grappling with the full weight of Greek philosophical traditions." Ayn Rand accredits Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and calls him a great influence on his thinking. Recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls Aristotelian tradition in an anti-elitist manner and is able to dispute the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen also observes that "the most enduring romantic images, Aristotle who guided Alexander's future conquerors" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "strict rule" of Aristotle's drama theory has ensured the role to Poetics in Hollywood.
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while four questions of Niko Tinbergen, based on four causes of Aristotle, are used to analyze animal behavior; they examine functions, phylogeny, mechanisms, and ontogeny.
Merge works
Corpus Aristotelicum
The works of Aristotle that have survived
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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