The Latin Encyclopedia (Latin for "British Encyclopaedia"), published by Encyclopà < Â|dia Britannica, Inc., is a general knowledge of the English encyclopedia. It was written by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors, who have included 110 Nobel Prize winners and five American presidents. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which includes 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, is the latest print edition; content and digital distribution has continued since then.
The Britannica is the oldest English-language encyclopedia still produced. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital, Edinburgh, as three volumes. Encyclopedia grows in size: the second edition is 10 volumes, and the fourth edition (1801-1810) has been expanded to 20 volumes. His increasing stature as a scientific work helped recruit leading contributors, and the 9th edition (1875-1889) and 11 (1911) were important encyclopedias for scholarships and literary styles. Starting with the 11th edition and after being acquired by an American company, Britannica shorten and simplify the article to expand its appeal to the North American market. In 1933, Britannica became the first encyclopedia to adopt a "continuous revision", in which the encyclopaedia continued to be reprinted, with each article updated on schedule. In March 2012, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. announced that they will no longer publish a print edition, and will focus on EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica Online .
The 15th edition has a three-part structure: the short-text article (generally less than 750 words) , 17 languages ​​long (two to 310 pages), and one MacropÃÆ'Â|dia "la" title = "Latin Text"> Propacia volume to provide an outline of hierarchical knowledge. The MicropÃÆ'Â|dia is meant to check facts quickly and as a guide for MacropÃÆ'Â|dia ; readers are encouraged to study Propagdi to understand the subject context and find more detailed articles. Over 70 years, the size of Britannica remained stable, with around 40 million words on half a million topics. Although published in the United States since 1901, Britannica has largely maintained the English spelling of England.
Video Encyclopædia Britannica
Current status
Print version
Since 1985, Britannica has four parts: MicropÃÆ'Â|dia , < span lang = "la" title = "Latin text"> MacropÃÆ'Â|dia , PropÃÆ'Â| he , and a two-volume index. The Britannica article is found in Micro - and MacropÃÆ'Â|dia , which includes 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume has about a thousand pages. 2007 MacropÃÆ'Â|dia has 699 in-depth articles, ranging from 2 to 310 pages and has references and named contributors. By contrast, 2007 MicropÃÆ'Â|dia has about 65,000 articles, mostly (about 97%) containing less than 750 words , no references, and no named contributor. The MicropÃÆ'Â|dia article is intended for quick fact-checking and to help find more comprehensive information in MacropÃÆ'Â|dia . The MacropÃÆ'Â|dia article is intended to be an authoritative and well-written article on the subject and as a repository of information not covered on the spot other. The longest article (310 pages) is in the United States, and results from the merging of articles in each country. The 2013 edition of Britannica contains about forty thousand articles.
Information can be found at Britannica by following cross-references in MicropÃÆ'Â|dia and MacropÃÆ'Â|dia ; However, this is rare, on average one cross reference per page. Therefore, the reader is advised to review the alphabetical index or PropÃÆ'Â|dia , which governs Britannica > 's by topic.
The core of PropÃÆ'Â|dia is "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge. Thus, the Outline is consulted by the editor of Britannica to decide which articles should be included in the Latin - Micro - and MacropÃÆ'Â|dia . The outline is also intended to be a learning guide, to put the subject in the right perspective, and suggest a series of articles for students who want to learn a topic in depth. However, the library has found that it is virtually unused, and reviewers have recommended that it be derived from the encyclopaedia. The PropÃÆ'Â|dia also has a human anatomical color transparency and several attachments to the list of staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three part of Britannica.
Together, the MicropÃÆ'Â|dia and MacropÃÆ'Â|dia consists of about 40 million words and 24,000 images. The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, a list of 228,274 topics covered under Britannica , along with 474,675 subentries under the topic. The Britannica generally prefers the British spelling of America; for example, using color (not color ), center (not center ), and the free encyclopedia (not the encyclopedia ). However, there are exceptions to this rule, such as defense rather than defense . Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references like "Color: see Colors."
Since 1936, articles from
Alphabetization of articles in MicropÃÆ'Â|dia and MacropÃÆ'Â|dia follow strict rules. Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while number entries like "1812, War" are sorted alphabetically as if numbers had been written ("Eighteen, War"). Articles with identical names are first ordered by people, then by places, then by objects. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then based on chronology; thus, Charles III of France preceded Charles I of England, registered in Britannica as ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are sorted alphabetically as if their titles are "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are alphabetically organized by country, then by the increasingly small politics of the division.
In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. It was announced as a step by the company to adapt to the time and focus on its future using digital distribution. The peak year for the print encyclopaedia was 1990 when 120,000 sets were sold, but dropped to 40,000 in 1996. 12,000 sets of printed 2010 editions, of which 8,000 have been sold in 2012. By the end of April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition have been sold out at the online store Britannica. In 2016, a replica of the first edition of Britannica 1768 was sold at an online store.
Related print material
Britannica Junior was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and was renamed the Britannica Junior EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia in 1963. It was taken from the market after 1984 printing.
An English Britannica Children edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960. Its content was largely determined by the eleven standard tests given in England. Britannica introduced the Children's Britannica to the US market in 1988, aimed at seven to 14 years old.
In 1961, the 16 volume Encyclopedia of Young Children was given to children who had recently learned to read.
My First Britannica is for children aged six to 12 years old, and the Britannica Discovery Library is for children aged three to six years old (released from 1974 to 1991).
There are and several short encyclopedias Britannica . Single volume Britannica Concise EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia has 28,000 short articles that compensate for 32 larger volumes Britannica ; there are official translations in languages ​​like Chinese and Vietnamese. Compton by Britannica , first published in 2007, incorporating the former Compton's Encyclopedia , is for 10 to 17 years and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.
Since 1938, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. has published annually Book of the Year that includes last year's events. The edition is given from the Book of the Year named in terms of the year of publication, although the actual edition includes the events of the previous year. Articles dating back to the 1994 edition include online. The Company also publishes some special reference works, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to Life and Bard Works (Wiley, 2006).
Optical disc, online, and mobile version
The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD contains over 100,000 articles. These include the usual article Britannica , as well as others taken from Britannica Student Encyclopædia , and Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia. Package includes a variety of additional content including maps, videos, voice clips, animations and web links. It also offers learning tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.
Britannica Online is a website with over 120,000 articles and is updated regularly. It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC. As of 2009, about 60% of EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica revenue comes from online operations, where about 15% comes from subscriptions to consumer versions of websites. As of 2006, subscriptions are available on an annual, monthly, or weekly basis. Special subscription packages are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional customers are an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, Britannica makes articles available for free if they are linked to hyperlinks from external sites. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertisements.
On February 20, 2007, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. announced that they are working with mobile search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopedia. Users will be able to send questions via text messages, and AskMeNow will search for Britannica ' s 28,000 encyclopaedic articles to return answers to questions. Daily topical features delivered directly to users' phones are also planned. On June 3, 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online experts and amateur academic contributors to Britannica's online content (in the spirit of the wiki), with editorial supervision from Britannica staff, was announced. Approved donations will be credited, though contributing to automatically grant an irrevocable license to EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. for the contribution.
On January 22, 2009, Britannica president Jorge Cauz announced that the company would receive edits and additions to the online website of Britannica from the public. The published encyclopaedia edition will not be affected by the changes. Individuals who wish to edit the Britannica website must register under their real name and address before editing or submitting their content. All edits submitted will be reviewed and reviewed and must be approved by an encyclopaedic professional staff. Contributions from non-academic users will sit in a separate section of content created by specialist Britannica , due to content submitted by non- Britannica scholars. Articles written by users, when reviewed and approved, will also only be available in a dedicated section of the website, separate from professional articles. The official material Britannica will carry the "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.
On September 14, 2010, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K-12 market. On July 20, 2011, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky has ported its Britannica Kids product line to Intel Atom's Intel Netbook and on October 26, 2011 has launched an encyclopedia as an iPad app. In 2010, Brittannica released Brittanica ImageQuest, the image database.
In March 2012, it was announced that the company would stop printing an encyclopedia set, and it would focus more on its online version.
Maps Encyclopædia Britannica
Personnel and management
Contributors
The 2007 print version of Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many leading in its field, such as Nobel-winning economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey. About a quarter of the contributors have died, some of them in 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while the other quarter retired or emeritus. Most (about 98%) contribute to only one article; However, 64 contributions to three articles, 23 contributing to four articles, 10 contributing to five articles, and 8 contributions to more than five articles. A highly productive contributor is Christine Sutton from Oxford University, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.
The authors of Britannica include authors such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Leon Trotsky, as well as popular independent encyclopedias such as Isaac Asimov, some criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911, historian George L. Burr wrote:
With almost shocking courage, [contributor Britannica , Mr. Philips] revolves almost in all areas of European history, politics, social, ecclesiastical... The complaint is that [this work] has no authority. This too - this dependence on editorial energy rather than on mature special learning - may, unfortunately, also be regarded as "Americanization": because of course nothing is so shortening the scholarship of our American encyclopaedia.
Staff
In 2007 in the fifteenth edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a cynologist, was listed as Britannica Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors as editor-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902-1924), James Louis Garvin (1926-1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932-1938), Walter Yust (1938-1960), Harry Ashmore (1960-1963). ), Warren E. Preece (1964-1968, 1969-1975), Sir William Haley (1968-1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979-1991), and Robert McHenry (1992-1997). In 2007 Anita Wolff was listed as Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor. Previous Executive editors include John V. Dodge (1950-1964) and Philip W. Goetz.
Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest employee of the EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica. He started his career there in 1934, finally gaining the position of Treasurer, Vice President, and Chief Financial Officer in 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.
The 2007 editorial staff of Britannica includes five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped write articles from MicropÃÆ'Â|dia and some parts of MacropÃÆ'Â|dia . The preparation and publication EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica requires trained staff. According to the last page of the 2007 PropÃÆ'Â|dia , the staff is organized into ten departments:
- Editorial staff (19 editors and 1 executive assistant)
- Art and Cartography (9 employees)
- Composition Technology and Design (4 employees)
- Copy Department (12 employees)
- Editorial and Publishing Technology (5 employees)
- Information Management (9 employees)
- Media Asset Management and Production Control (4 employees)
- Librarian Reference (3 employees)
- World data (5 employees)
- Manufacturing (1 employee)
Some of these departments are organized hierarchically. For example, the copy editor is divided into 4 copy editors, 2 senior copy editors, 4 supervisors, plus a coordinator and a director. Similarly, the Editorial department is led by Dale Hoiberg and assisted by four others; they oversee the work of five senior editors, nine associate editors, and one executive assistant.
editorial advisor
The Britannica has an Editorial Advisory Board, which includes 12 leading scholars: non-fiction writer Nicholas Carr, religious scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emery Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Nobel Prize-winning Physics Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musician Don Michael Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood, Royal President of Edinburgh Society , and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.
PropÃÆ'Â|dia and Outline of Knowledge produced by dozens of editorial advisers under the direction of Mortimer J Adler. About half of these counselors have died, including several chief architects Outline - Rene Dubos (1982), Loren Eiseley (1977), Harold D. Lasswell (died 1978), Mark Van Doren (d 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d 2001). PropÃÆ'Â|dia also lists just under 4,000 mentors consulted for the unknown MicropÃÆ'Â|dia article.
Company structure
In January 1996, Britannica was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra, who currently serves as Chairman of the Board. In 1997, Don Yannias, an old partner and investment adviser from Safra, became CEO of EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Inc., was created to develop a digital version of> Britannica ; Yannias took over the role of CEO in the new company, while the previous position in the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias Ownership at Britannica.com Inc. marked by missteps, massive layoffs, and financial losses. In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the two companies' leadership. Yannias then returns to investment management, but remains on the Board of Directors of Britannica.
In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is a senior executive and reports directly to the Board of Directors of Britannica. Cauz has pursued alliances with other companies and expanded the brand of Britannica into new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.
Under the ownership of Safra, the company has experienced financial difficulties, and has responded by reducing the price of its products and imposing drastic cost cuts. According to a 2003 report in New York Post , management
Competition
Since Britannica is a common encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with special encyclopedias like Math Encyclopedia or Medieval Dictionary , which can devote more space to topics they choose. In its first years, the main competitor of Britannica was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, shortly thereafter, Rees's CyclopÃÆ'Â|dia and Coleridge's EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Metropolitana However, from the 9th edition onwards, Britannica is widely considered to have the greatest authority of any common English encyclopaedia, mainly because of its wide scope and leading authors. The printed version of Britannica is significantly more expensive than its competitors.
Since the early 1990s, Print encyclopedia
The EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica has been compared with other print encyclopedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The famous comparison is Kenneth Kister, who provides a qualitative and quantitative comparison of Britannica with two comparable encyclopedias, Collier's Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia Americana . For quantitative analysis, ten articles were chosen randomly - circumcisions, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan - and AD or F scores were given in four categories: , accuracy, clarity, and upgrades. In all four categories and for all three encyclopedias, the four average scores fell between B- and B, largely because no encyclopaedia had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the category of accuracy, Digital Encyclopedia on optical media
The most famous competitor of Britannica among the digital encyclopaedia CD/DVD-ROM is Encarta, now a discontinued, modern, multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporates three print encyclopedias: Funk & amp; Wagoner , Collier's and New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia . Encarta is the best-selling multimedia encyclopedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006. Both are in the same price range, with 2007 EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica Ultimate US $ 40-50 CD and DVD and Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD for US $ 45. The Britannica contains 100,000 articles and Dictionary and Thesaurus Merriam-Webster (only USA), and offers editions of Primary and Secondary Schools. Encarta contains 66,000 articles, an easy-to-use Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language and home work tools, US and English dictionaries, and youth editions. Like Encarta , Britannica has been criticized for bias against US audiences; articles related to Great Britain are updated less frequently, US maps are more detailed than in other countries, and do not have English dictionaries. Like Britannica , Encarta is available online by subscription, although some content can be accessed for free. Internet Encyclopedia
The dominant Internet Encyclopedia and the ultimate alternative to Britannica is the free, web-based, and content-free encyclopedia, Wikipedia. The main difference between the two lies in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; style sheets and editorial policies respectively; relative age; number of treated subjects; the number of languages ​​in which articles are written and made available; and the underlying economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is not-for-profit and is not linked to traditional profit-based publishing and contract distribution networks.
The 699 printed MacropÃÆ'Â|dia articles are generally written by identified contributors, and about 65,000 are printed MicropÃÆ'Â|dia article is the work of the editorial staff and identifying outside consultants. So, the article
In 2005, the journal selected articles from both websites on various science topics and sent them to so-called "relevant" field experts for peer review. Experts then compare competing articles - one from each site on a particular topic - side by side, but not told which article comes from which site. Nature recovered 42 useful reviews.
In the end, the journal found only eight serious errors, such as a common misconception of important concepts: four of each site. He also found many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 on Wikipedia and 123 on Britannica , averaging 3.86 errors per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica . Although Britannica is revealed as a more accurate encyclopedia, with fewer errors, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. in a detailed 20-page description called Nature s study has errors and misleading. and called for a "quick" retraction. He notes that the two articles in this study were taken from the annual book of Britannica and not the encyclopaedia, and the other two were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called Britannica Student Encyclopedia) on the company's website). The denial keeps mentioning that some articles presented to reviewers are a combination of several articles, and that other articles are just quotes but punished for factual omissions. The company also notes that some mistakes called Nature are minor spelling variations, and the other is a matter of interpretation. Nature defends her story and refuses to withdraw, stating that, as it compares Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica , it uses whatever relevant material is available at Britannica i> ' website.
Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of Britannica UK said:
Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has lots of interesting entries there, but their approach will not work for EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica . My job is to create more awareness about our very different approach to publication in the public mind. They are chisels, we are exercises, and you must have the right tools for the job.
Critical and popular ratings
Reputation
Since the 3rd edition, Britannica has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence. The 3rd and 9th editions are pirated for sale in the United States, starting with Dobson's Encyclopaedia . In the 14th edition release, Time magazine dubbed Britannica â € Å"Patriarch of the Libraryâ €. In related advertisements, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that Britannica "can not be compared because there are no competitors." References to Britannica can be found throughout English literature, especially in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favorite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". This story is highlighted by Lord Mayor London, Gilbert Inglefield, in the twelfth century of Britannica .
The Britannica has a reputation for summarizing knowledge. To continue their education, several people have devoted themselves to reading the whole Britannica , taking three to 22 years to do so. When Fat'h Ali became Persian Persia in 1797, he was given a set of three editions of Britannica's , which he read completely; after this achievement, he extended his royal title to include "The Greatest Lord and Lord of the EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica ". Writer George Bernard Shaw admitted having read the 9th edition - except science articles - and Richard Evelyn Byrd took Britannica as a reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934, while Philip Beaver read it during the expedition sailing. Recently, A.J. Jacobs, an editor in the magazine Esquire, reads the full version of the 2002 edition of the 15th, describing his experience in a well-received 2004 book, The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest for Become the Most Smartest Person in the World . Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: author CS Forester and Amos Urban Shirk, an American entrepreneur, who read 11 and 14th editions, spend about three hours a night for four and a half years to read the 11th. Some editor-in- Chiefs of Britannica tend to have read their editions completely, such as William Smellie (first edition), William Robertson Smith (9th edition), and Walter Yust (14th edition).
Appreciation
The CD/DVD-ROM version of Britannica , EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica References Ultimate Suite , received the 2004 Exceptional Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers. On July 15, 2009, the EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica was awarded the venue as one of the "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by the panel more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.
Topic coverage
Topics selected in part by referring to PropÃÆ'Â|dia "Knowledge Outline". Most of the Britannica are devoted to geography (26% of MacropÃÆ'Â|dia ), biographies (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3% ). A supplementary study of MicropÃÆ'Â|dia found that geography accounts for 25% of articles, 18% science, 17% social science, biographies 17%, and all other humanities 25%. Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of [Britannica's] is unmatched by any other public Encyclopaedia."
The Britannica does not cover topics with equivalent details; for example, the entire religion of Buddhism and most other religions is included in one article MacropÃÆ'Â|dia , while 14 articles are devoted to Christianity , comprises almost half of all religious articles. However, Britannica has been praised as the most common encyclopedia bias that is marketed to Western readers and is praised for its biographies of important women of all ages.
This can be expressed without fear of the contradiction that the 15th edition of Britannica approves the cultural, social, and scientific development of non-Westerners, paying more attention than the common English encyclopedia on the market.
Criticism of editorial decisions
On rare occasions, Britannica is criticized for its editorial choice. Given its almost constant size, the encyclopedia needs to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in a controversial decision. The early 15th edition (1974-1985) was blamed for reducing or eliminating the children's literature, military decorations, and French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial errors are also suspected, as is the depiction of inconsistent Japanese biographies. The deletion of the index is condemned, such as the sharing of articles that would be MicropÃÆ'Â|dia and MacropÃÆ'Â|dia . Concluding, a critic mentions the early 15th edition as "a qualified failure... [that] cares more about conjuring formatting than keeping it." Recently, observers from the American Library Association were shocked to find that most of the educational articles had been removed from the MacropÃÆ'Â|dia Some very few Britannica - wrong selected contributors. A famous example of the early years of Britannica was Newton's gravitational rejection by George Gleig, editor of the 3rd edition of the head (1788-1797), who wrote that gravity is caused by the classical fire element.. The Britannica has also firmly defended the scientific approach to cultural topics, as did William Robertson Smith's article on religion in the 9th edition, especially his article which states that the Bible is not historically accurate (1875). Other critics
The
In 2010 an inaccurate entry on the Irish civil war was discussed in the Irish press after the decision of the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.
Writing about the 3rd edition (1788-1797), Britannica ', George Gleig observes that "perfection does not seem to correspond to the nature of the work built on such a plan, and embraces the subject like that. "In March 2006,
By paying attention to mistakes in general, whether falling under mental denominations, typography or coincidence, we are consciously capable of showing larger numbers than any criticism. Men who are familiar with countless difficulties who attend the implementation of a very wide job will make the right perks. For this we appealed, and had to be satisfied with their judgment.
However, Jorge Cauz (president of EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica Inc.) asserts in 2012 that " Britannica [...] will always be true factually."
History
The previous owners have included, in chronological order, Edinburgh, Scottish printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, publisher A & Scott Scotland; C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.
The present owner of EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica Inc. are Jacqui Safra, billionaire and Swiss actor. Recent advances in information technology and the emergence of electronic encyclopedias such as the EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopedias. To remain competitive, EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. has emphasized Britannica's reputation, reduced its prices and production costs, and developed an electronic version of CD-ROMs, DVDs and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has been promoting spin-off reference works.
Edition
The Britannica has been published in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements for the 3rd and 4th editions (see Table below). The 5th and 6th editions are reprints of the 4th edition, the 10th edition is only a supplement to the 9th edition, as the 12th and 13th editions are the 11th supplement. The 15th was undergoing a massive reorganization in 1985, but the current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions are edited each year throughout their journey, so the subsequent prints are completely different from the previous ones.
Throughout history, 1768-1826
In the first era (1st edition - 6, 1768-1826),
The Britannica in this period was primarily a Scottish company, and it was one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment. In this era, Britannica moved from a set of three volumes (first edition) composed by a young editor - William Smellie - to a twenty-volume set written by many authorities. Several other encyclopedias competed throughout this period, among them the editions of Abraham Rees's CyclopÃÆ'Â|dia and Coleridge's EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Metropolitana and David Brewster Edinburgh EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia .
1827-1901
During the second era (editions 7 - 9, 1827-1901), Britannica was managed by Edinburgh A & amp; C Black. Although some contributors are again recruited through the friendship of editor-in-chief, especially Macvey Napier, others are attracted by the reputation of Britannica. Contributors often come from other countries and are among the most respected in the world in their field. The general index of all articles entered for the first time in the 7th edition, the practice maintained until 1974.
The production of the 9th edition is overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first head editor born in England. Dubbed the "Graduate Edition", the 9th edition is the most scientific of all Britannicas . After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith. No biography of the living person is included. James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley are special advisers in science. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, the 9th edition was outdated, and Britannica faced financial difficulties.
1901-1973
In the third era (edition 10-14, 1901-1973),
When Hooper fell into financial trouble, Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920-1923, 1928-1943). In 1932, Sears vice president, Elkan Harrison Powell, served as the presidency of Britannica; in 1936, he initiated a policy of ongoing revision. This is a departure from previous practice, where the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from the previous edition. Powell is developing a new educational product built on the reputation of Britannica '.
In 1943, Sears donated the Latin EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica to the University of Chicago. William Benton, then a vice president of the University, provided working capital for his operations. The stock is split between Benton and the University, with the University holding options on stock. Benton became Chairman of the Board and administered Britannica until his death in 1973. Benton founded the Benton Foundation, which manages Britannica until 1996. In 1968, towards the end of this era < i> Britannica celebrates two centuries of anniversary.
1974-1994
In the fourth era (1974-94), Britannica introduced the 15th edition, reorganized into three parts: Latin MicropÃÆ'Â| he , MacropÃÆ'Â|dia , and PropÃÆ'Â|dia . Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Editor's Board of EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and chairman of 1974, editorial planning director for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965),
On March 9, 1976, the US Federal Trade Commission filed an opinion and order that ordered the EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. to use: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices at door-to-presentations outside the offices of their sales agents.
1994-present
In the fifth (1994-present) era, the digital version has been developed and released on optical and online media. In 1996, Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra under its estimated value, due to the company's financial difficulties. EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One section retained the company's name and developed a printed version, and the other, Britannica.com Inc., developed a digital version. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy to introduce a new product under the name of Britannica. In March 2012, Britannica's president Jorge Cauz announced that they would not produce a new encyclopaedia print edition, with the 15th edition of 2010 being the last. The company will focus only on online editions and other educational tools.
Britannica 'final print edition in 2010, set 32 ​​â € <â €
The editor of the EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica , the world standard reference since 1768, presents Britannica Global Edition Developed specifically to provide a comprehensive global and global coverage around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and important articles taken from EncyclopÃÆ'Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â | He Britannica himself, as well as from the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia , Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions , and Compton by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.
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Source of the article : Wikipedia
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